Review Material for UCSP

POLITICAL SCIENCE

1. Political science is the systematic study of governance by the application of empirical and generally
scientific methods of analysis.
Reduced to its simplest terms, Political Science is the systematic study of the state and government (De leon,
2009). The word political is derived from the Greek word POLIS, meaning city or what today would be the equivalent
of a sovereign state. Hence, the main objective of this discipline is to acquire knowledge and understanding about the
government and the state.

1. Political Theory
The entire of doctrines relating to the origin, form, behavior, and purposes of the state are dealt with in the study
of this subject.

2. Public Law
The organization of the governments, the limitations upon government authority, the powers and duties of
governmental offices and officers, and the obligation of one state to another are handled in this subject.

3. Public Administration
The focus in on the methods and techniques used in the actual management of state affairs by the
executive, legislative and judicial branches of the government.

Hector de Leon (2008) enumerated the functions and importance of Political Science.

1. To discover the principles that should be adhered to in public affairs and to study the operations of the
government to demonstrate what is good, to criticized what is bad or inefficient, and to
suggest improvements.

2. Its findings and conclusions may be of immense practical use to constitution makers, legislators, and
judges who need models or norms that can be applied to immediate situations. It may also be immense
practical use to individuals who seek to understand the state in which they live.

3. The study of political science deals also with the problems of social welfare, governmental economic
programs, international cooperation, and wide range of other matters that are urgent concern to public
officials and to private citizen.

The said author also enumerated and explained the goals of studying political science. The following are:

1. Education for citizenship .

It should be made clear that the primary objective of the political science curriculum is education for
citizenship. The preparation of students for career in politics, law, teaching, the civil service and the
primary service is secondary to the task of equipping them to discharge the obligations of democratic
citizenship, which grows constantly heavier in the modern world.

2, Essential part of liberal education.

The study of political science should be viewed as an essential part of liberal education which cultivate
the characteristic of being an intelligent and responsible citizen asserting
the view that it can save democracy but lose it in ignorance.

3. Knowledge and understanding of government

Political science seeks to gather and impart knowledge and understanding. The good citizen who
behaves himself and votes regularly is no longer enough. He must also be the citizen who knows the
answers. He must know how the government operates, what interest and forces are behind particular
policies, what are the result of such policies, what rights and obligations are, who are his elective
representatives, and what they stand for.
ELEMENTS OF STATE
1. Population. All the inhabitants of a given country or area considered together.
2. Territory. Geographical area subject to the sovereignty, control, or jurisdiction of a state or other entity.
3. Sovereignty. Having independent legal rule over one's own country.
4. Government. The exercise of political authority over the actions, affairs of a political unit and people,
as well as the performance of certain functions for this unit or body.

INHERENT POWERS OF THE STATE

1. TAXATION - the practice of a government collecting money from its citizens to pay for public services.
2. EMINENT DOMAIN - the power of the government to take private property and convert it into public
use.
3. POLICE POWER - the inherent power of a government to exercise reasonable control over persons
and property within its jurisdiction in the interest of the general security, health,
safety, morals, and welfare except where legally prohibited.

FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
PRESIDENTIAL. Form of govt is based on the principle of separation of power between the executive
and legislature. The President is the head of the state.
PARLIAMENTARY. A system of democratic governance of a state where the executive derives its
democratic legitimacy from its ability to command the support of the legislature,
typically a parliament, to which it is accountable. The Prime Minister is the head of the
state.

BRANCHES OF GOVERNMENT
EXECUTIVE. Branch of government responsible for the implementation of laws and policies adopted.
by the legislature.
LEGISLATIVE. In charge of making laws.
JUDICIAL. In charge of deciding the meaning of laws, how to apply them to real situations, and whether a
law breaks the rules of the Constitution.

INTRODUCTION TO ANTHROPOLOGY

1. PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Covers the study of the emergence of man, their evolution, and physical variations.

2. CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Focuses to the study of the customary ways of thinking and behavior of a particular
population or society.

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY HAS TWO DISCIPLINES

HUMAN PALEONTOLOGY
Generally, Paleontology deals with the study of the evolution of species of this planet. Affixing the word
HUMAN to Human Paleontology narrowed the scope on the study of evolution by focusing on the
humans. Hence, a human palaeontologist would search for and study the buried, hardened bones and
teeth – which are known as fossils of humans, pre-humans and related animals (Ember and
Ember,1981). Based on theories and researchers conducted in this field, they affirm that not only human
beings but all species in this planet is a product of evolution.

HUMAN VARIATION
It seeks to answer the question, why inspite of the fact that human beings belong to only one type of
species known as the human species, they belong to one type of race known as the human race, their
physical characteristic would vary from one place to the other. Physical anthropologists in this sub-field
would study factors affecting human variation. According to Ember and Ember (1981), human variation
investigates how and why contemporary human populations differ in physical or biological characteristics.

CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY HAS 3 SUB-DISCIPLINES

ARCHEOLOGY
Archeologists seeks not only to reconstruct the daily life and customs of prehistoric peoples, but also
trace cultural changes in their societies and to offer possible explanations of those changes (Ember and
Ember, 1981).

ANTHROPOLOGICAL LINGUISTIC
A branch of cultural anthropology that deals with the study of languages, its evolution, nature and
characteristic. It also explains the relationship of language and human behavior. Ember and Ember (1981)
pointed out that a person specializing in anthropological linguistics is also concerned with the emergence
of language and also with the divergence of languages over a thousand years.

ETHNOLOGY
Ethnologists seeks to understand how and why people today, and in the recent past, differ on their
customary ways of thinking and acting, thus, it is concerned with patterns of thought and behavior such as
marriage customs, kinship organization, religion, folk art, music, and the like, and with the ways in which
these patterns differ in contemporary societies.

An ethnologist can analyze the nature and characteristics of cultural practices by different group of
people, QUALITATIVE STUDIES are being utilized. Distinct and different from that of the QUANTITATIVE
METHODOLOGY wherein the survey method is used in gathering data and statistics is utilized to analyze
such, the former uses observation and description in generating and analyzing data. Quantitative method
measures while Qualitative describes (Melegrito and Mendoza, 2016).

The following are the research methodologies being used ethnologists in conducting their studies:
ETHNOGRAPHY
It is also known as participant observation. This is due to the fact that it goes beyond the usual way of
observing where the senses are usually used in generating data. In this method, the ethnologists does not
only observe the cultural patterns of the respondents but becomes a member of such. He does not only
observe but participates and involves himself on the activities covered by the study. Ember and Ember
(1981) pointed out that an ethnographer usually spends a year or so living with, talking to, and observing
the people whose customs he or she is studying.

ETHNO-HISTORY
An Ethno-historian investigates written documents. They may spend many years going through
documents, such as missionary accounts, report by many traders and explorers, and official government
records to establish the sequence of cultural change that has occurred (Ember and Ember, 1981).

COMPARATIVE OR CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH

The primary objective of an ethnologist in using this type of methodology is to describe and compare
different type of cultural traits from one group of people from another so as for them to affirm the fact that
there is no such thing as a superior culture. Every culture of a group of people or society is unique which
is a product of certain factors existing both in their physical and social environment. In their Anthropology
book, Ember and Ember (1981), explained that the cross - cultural researcher is interested in discovering
why certain characteristics may be found in some societies but not in others.
 CULTURE

Culture provides the framework within which our lives become meaningful, based on standards of
success, beauty and goodness, and reverence for a god or gods, the forces of nature, or long dead
ancestors. It also shapes our personalities, - what we commonly describe as “human nature” (Ember and
Ember, 1981)

THE COMPONENTS OF CULTURE

A. Symbols. Anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by the members of a culture. This can
be in the form of sounds, images, objects and human actions wherein a particular meaning
is being attached on such.

B. Language. System of symbols with standard meanings that allow members of the society to
communicate with one another.

C. Values. These are standards by which members of a given culture define what is desirable or
undesirable, good or bad, beautiful and ugly. They are not descriptive statements but
evaluations and judgments from a standpoint of culture, of what ought to be.

D. Norms. Refers to rules and expectations by which a society guides the behaviour of its members.
Some norms are proscriptive, mandating what we must not do, others are prescriptive, stating
what we must do. The two type of norms are:
a. Mores – refer to norms that have great moral significance and is reinforced with sanction.
b. Folkways – norms that have little moral significance.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

1. Culture is shared
Beliefs and practices can be propagated by members of a population to others through interaction. An
example would be selling cosmetics to women wherein the cultural standard of what is beautiful is
explicitly spread among the members of the community.

2. Culture is learned
Learning is a process of transferring knowledge from an individual to others. With the exposure of the
members of the society to its beliefs and practices through observation and participation, culture is
absorbed and comprehended whether implicitly or explicitly. A teacher teaching a student how to count
is an example of such.

3. Culture is taken for granted

We assumed that our culture is normal or natural; in fact, it is not natural, but rather it is learned
consciously or unconsciously. It penetrates in our lives so deeply that it is taken for granted and that
through it, it provides the lens through which we perceive and evaluate things (Macionis, 1981).
Example: Seldom the society notices that the way it judges people based on their looks is an influence
and product of culture.

4. Culture is symbolic
Culture is composed of beliefs, practices and material objects. Members of the society would attach
meaning on it whose symbolism is related to the society as a whole. An example will be the school
graduation at the end of the school year which symbolizes achievement.

5. Culture varies across time and place

Every group of people in a society have different cultural practices and beliefs which is usually a
product of the type of environment they live. Their culture is considered an adaptive mechanism in
order to survive brought by the challenges in the changes of their physical and social environment.
Design of clothing as a means in protecting the body from the environment would vary from one place
 to the other. Those who live on cold-temperature area would have different type of clothes compared
to those who are in the warm-temperature places.

6. Culture is relative
Being relative in the context of understanding culture is based on the fact that culture vary from one
place
to the other because it is a product of certain factors in the physical and social environment of humans.
Due to such, each culture should be understood and be analyzed based on its own context not from
the
outside standard.

An example of this would be the society’s standard of identifying those who are educated and those
who
are not. An ethic group who was not able to attend formal education can be labelled as uncivilized.
Judging them based on their own standard would tell us that they have their own educational system
that is distinct and different from that of the mainstream. They have their own way of providing
knowledge
to their members, hence they also have their own standard of what a learned individual is.

LEVELS OF CULTURE

1. International Culture
Culture that is being observed and practice by most of the members of the international community.
Example is the celebration of Christmas and Valentine’s Day.

2. National Culture
Culture being observed by a group of people belonging to a certain type of nationality.
Example is the celebration of independence day in a country.

3. Elite Culture
Cultural traits practice by the affluent class of the society. Example is watching a musical play in an
opera house.

4. Popular Culture
Culture that is appreciated, observed and practiced by majority members of the society regardless of
their social class affiliation. Example is malling on holidays.

5. Subculture
A cultural trait with a modification from the one practiced by the majority. If the usual way of cleaning
teeth is with the use of toothbrush, a group of people using only a part of a guava twig in doing such is
an example of a sub-culture.

6.Counter Culture
A cultural practice that is contrary to the one observed by most members of the society. The practice of
polygamy in a society wherein members believe in monogamy is an example of counter culture.

APPROACHES TO CULTURE

ETHNOCENTRISM is the belief that one’s culture is superior to others. Example would be the case that
culture of the west is superior than those in the east, or education in United States is better than
education in the Philippines.

XENOCENTRISM is the feeling of inferiority towards one’s culture and perceive others as superior. It is a
manifestation of inferiority complex from an outside culture believing that one’s culture is less or
subordinate from it.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM is an approach in analyzing the culture of a group of people wherein they are
judged based on the their own standards not from an outsiders point of view. When it comes to the
standard of what is beautiful, each society have their own criteria. To assert that your standard should be
applied to them instead of their own is a manifestation of ethnocentrism. But judging someone based on
the standard where she belongs is an example of cultural relativism.

SOCIAL CONTROL are various means by which the members of the society encourages conformity to
cultural norms. The most popular way is the use of punishment. The extreme case would be the
imposition of death, followed by imprisonment and payment of fine. All of these sanctions aim to see to it
that members would abide with the society’s rules and regulation for the purpose of maintaining balance
and order.

Providing reward can also be a form of social control. It is a way of motivating or persuading someone to
perform an act which is in consonance on the expectations of the society. Example is a student being
reminded to pay attention in class and is given a merit award at the end of the day.

IDEAL CULTURE are social patterns which is consistent with cultural values and norms. Marriages is
based on love and affection by two individuals, the valedictorian as the most intelligent member of the
graduating batch and the common notion that a clear water is a clean one, are some examples of such
type of culture.

REAL CULTURE on the other hand pertains to the designation of social patterns that actually occur or
what actually happens in reality. Based on the examples of what an ideal culture is, most marriage is not
based on love and affection. In reality, such union has something to do with the observance of a particular
practice in a society involving economics and politics. Arrange marriages falls under such.

Usually, aside from academic performance, the choice of the school of who will be the valedictorian of the
batch depends upon whether the candidate was able to comply with the expectations of the school
authorities. Factors being considered has something to do with the economic standing, who among is the
most obedient, and the most respectful among them.

Looks are usually deceiving in the case of a clean water. Certain micro-organisms which cannot be seen
by the naked eye can be present inspite of the clearness of such.

PROCESSES THAT CAN CAUSE CHANGE WITHIN A CULTURE

A. Invention. Creating new cultural elements- video games, political parties, polio vaccines.
B. Diffusion. The spread of both materials and non- material elements from one cultural
system to another.
C. Discovery. Closely related cause of cultural change. It involves recognizing and
understanding something already in existence – from a distant star to the
foods of a foreign culture.

SOCIOLOGY
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE - an approach to understanding human behavior by placing it within its
broader social context.

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION - the differentiation of a given population into hierarchically superposed

classes. It is manifested in the existence of upper and lower social layers.

SOCIETY – the aggregate of people living together in more or less ordered society.
 The theories developed by Sociologist will be a great guide in looking at our world objectively and in a
wider perspective. There might be some limitations on its analysis, but it can provide different means in
analyzing societies distinct from the usual way of interpreting it.

THE STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS

A theoretical framework based on the view of society as a system of many different parts that works
together to generate relative stability (Macionis, 1989). Everything that exist in the society including
institutions such as the family, school, religion, and state are essential and important because they
perform essential functions in maintaining balance and order. It includes those that are considered
negative such as poverty.

According to Herbert Gans, a classical sociologist, poverty should exist because it performs a function
of creating poor people who are willing to perform the dirty jobs of the society. In the issue of deviance
such as crime, Emile Durkheim, another famous sociologist believes that there is nothing abnormal about
it. Deviance promotes social unity and due to such, can trigger social change. Example of this is the
revolution.

THE SOCIAL CONFLICT ANALYSIS

A theoretical framework based on the view that society is a system characterized of social inequality
and social conflict which generates social change (Macionis, 1989). Karl Marx who introduced this theory
presented the view that the society is a product of the continuous struggle for power between the strong
and the weak, particularly the upper class and the lower class. The upper class sees to it that it is the
dominant class of the society over the lower class. The lower class on the other hand would struggle to
attain the same status as the upper class. The upper class will always be on the advantage because they
own and control the resources and institutions of the society and would utilize it to suppress and control
the social mobility of the lower class.

This continuous competition and struggle for power between the two social classes leads to social
change. These changes will push the society to evolved from simple to a more complex one.

THE SYMBOLIC INTERACTION ANALYSIS

A theoretical framework based on the view that society is a highly variable product of the continuous
interaction of individuals in various setting (Macionis, 1989). Based on this definition, Sociologists who are
guided by this theory view society as a composition of subjective perceptions and responses. Every
individual looks at the world depending upon their experiences on their interaction with fellow individuals.
This interaction is a composition of complex symbols influencing how members of the society reacts and
perceive the world around them.

For example, a poorly dressed man can be perceived differently by differently individuals. The
symbolism attached to the said man would vary due to different interpretations which is basically based
on their status and experience. Hence, a police officer might consider him as a threat to security, a priest
would perceive him as a person in need, while a teacher might consider him as someone who is illiterate
or uneducated.

SOCIALIZATION

1. SOCIALIZATION is the process by which social experience provides the individual with qualities and
capacities that we associate with being fully human. For society as a whole, socialization is the means
of teaching culture to each new generation.

2. In the 19th century, patterns of human behavior were widely believed to be an expression of human
nature in the form of instincts. Today, human qualities are understood to be mainly a result of nurture
rather than nature. Human nature is, therefore, the creation of culture bin highly viable ways.
3. Personality is a concept that embraces broad patterns of our social humanity. In the simplest term, it is
defined as the organized system of personal thoughts, feelings, and behavior.

4. The importance of social experience is evident in the lack of human development characteristic of
socially isolated children. Some evidence suggests that if early childhood is deprived of social
experience, it would lead to some permanent limitation in language acquisition – and thus little social
learning may result.

5. John Watson’s Theory of Behaviorism claimed that patterns of human behavior are conditioned by the
environment. It is a result of the social environment rather than biological instincts.

6. Sigmund Freud described the human personality as composed of three conceptual parts: The ID
represents general human needs, which Freud claimed to be innate. The SUPEREGO represents
cultural values and norms as internalized by the individual. The needs of the ID and cultural restraints
of the superego are mediated by the operation of the EGO.

7. Repression is a means used by the society to control individual drives through fear and threat, while
Sublimation is a form of redirecting the sexual drive to something socially approved forms of
expression.

8. Jean Piaget believed that human development is the result of both biological maturation and increasing
social experiences. He asserts that socialization involves four major stages of development:
sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

9. SENSORIMOTOR stage is the level of human development in which the world is experienced only
through the senses in terms of physical contact. It corresponds roughly to the first two years of life.

10. PRE-OPERATIONAL stage refers to the human development in which language and other symbols
are used. It typically begins by the age of two and extends to about age of seven.

11. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE is characterized with the use of logic to understand object or
events, but not in abstract terms. Within this stage, which typically corresponds to the years between
seven and eleven, children make strides in their ability to comprehend and manipulate the
environment. In addition, would attach more than one symbol to a particular event or object.

12. FORMAL OPERATIONAL stage is characterized by highly abstract thought and the ability to imagine
alternatives to reality. Beginning at about twelve, children have the capacity to think of themselves
and the world in a highly abstract term rather than only in terms of concrete situations.

13. To George Herbert Mead, the process of socialization is based on the emergence of self which he
believed is entirety the result of social experience. Mead empathized the importance of learning to
take the role of the other. He viewed the self as partly spontaneous ( the I) and partly guided by the
reaction of others ( the ME).

14. Charles Horton Cooley used the term LOOKING-GLASS SELF to recognize that our conception of
ourselves is influenced by our perceptions of how others respond to us.

15. The family is usually the first setting of socialization, and has primary importance for initially shaping a
child’s attitude and behavior.

16. Socialization demonstrates the power of the society to shape our thoughts, feelings, and actions. Yet
as George Herbert Mead pointed out, the relationship between self and society is a two- way process:
each shapes the other within ongoing social interaction.

17. The five spheres of socialization are: family, school, peer group, mass media and public
opinion.
18. The FAMILY is the most important social setting in which socialization takes place. During at least the
first several years of life, for most individuals, the family is the social world. Only when children start
school do they typically spend a great deal of time away from their families.

19. When formal SCHOOLING begins, unfamiliar people and experiences introduce several new
elements into the socialization process. In school, children learn how to interact with other people who
are not of their primary group, and who may have social backgrounds that differ from their own.

20. By the time children start school, they have discovered a new setting for social activity in the PEER
GROUP, people with common interests and social position who are usually of the same age. A young
child’s peer group is generally drawn from neighborhood playmates; later peer groups are composed
of friends from school and recreational activities.

21. The MASS MEDIA are channels of communication directed to vast audiences within a society.
Common to industrial societies, the mass media include television, radio, newspapers, and
magazines. All of these constantly present us with information of all kinds and, as a result, have
enormous effect on our attitudes and behavior.

DEVIANCE

1. Deviance refers to a wide range of norm violations (Macionis, 1989) Crime is one type of deviance,
involving norms formally enacted into criminal law.

2. In 1876, Cesare Lombroso, an Italian physician who worked in prisons, developed a biological theory
of criminality. He described criminals as physically distinctive – with low foreheads, prominent jaws and
cheekbones, protruding ears, hairiness and unusually long arms that made them resemble human
beings’ apelike ancestors (Jones, 1986).

3. William Sheldon (1949) advanced the idea that body structure is significant. He reported an association
between criminality and mesomorphic body type. In other words, criminality was linked to muscular,
athletic body structure.

4. Eleonor Glueck (1950) however did not claim that a mesomorphic body structure is a direct cause of
criminality. Rather, they linked this body type to personal characteristics such as insensitivity toward
others and a tendency to react aggressively to frustration – that seem likely to promote criminality.

5. Walter Reckless and Simon Dinitz (1967) used psychological approach to explore the hypothesis that
personality traits are linked to juvenile delinquency among boys. These researchers claimed that
various social pressures to engaged in delinquent activity are widespread, but can be contained by
boys who have strong moral values ad positive self-image. They called their idea CONTAINMENT
THEORY.

6. The “good boys” seemed to have strong conscience or superego, can coped well with frustrations, and
identified positively with cultural values and norms. The “bad boys” had a weaker conscience, were
less able to tolerate frustrations, and did not strongly identify with cultural norms and values (Reckless
and Dinitz, 1967).

7. At first glance, deviance may seem to have no useful function; crime for example cause billions of peso
in property losses each year as well as death and personal injury to hundreds of thousands of people.
Nonetheless, STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM asserts that deviance makes important contributions
to the continuing operation of the society
(Durkheim, 1964).

8. According to Emile Durkheim, there is nothing abnormal about deviance since it is an integral part of all
societies. More specifically, he stated that deviance has four functions:1) Deviance affirms cultural
 values and norms, 2) Responding to deviance clarify moral boundaries, 3) Responding to deviance
promotes social unity, and 4) deviance encourages social change.

9. Sociologist Robert Merton (1968) claims that the operation of the society encourages crime
and other types of deviance especially by people in certain situations. His theory is known as
MERTON’S STRAIN THEORY.

10. The SYMBOLIC INTERACTION ANALYSIS directs attention to the complex process by which people
engaged in social interaction produce social reality that varies from situation to situation, and from
person to person. The central contribution of this analysis is LABELING THEORY, which is the
assertion that deviance and conformity result from the process by which individuals are defined or
labelled by others (Macionis, 1989). In other words, some behavior may be defined differently from
one situation to another. Therefore, nothing is inherently deviant, but may become defined as such
through the response of others.

11. A STIGMA is a powerful negative social label that radically changes a person’s social identity and
self- concept (Goffman, 1963).

12. The SOCIAL CONFLICT PARADIGM attempts to explain deviance in terms of basic dimensions of
social inequality. Alexander Liazos (1972) calls attention to the tendency to define less powerful
people as deviant while affluent people claim respectability.

13. The said theory claims that laws and other norms reflect the interest of powerful members of society;
those who threaten the status quo are likely to be defined as deviant; social injury cause by powerful
people is less likely to be defined as criminal than social injury caused by people who have little social
power.

SEX AND GENDER

1. SEX refers to the biological categories of classifying humans as male and female.

2. At birth, males and females are distinguished by PRIMARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS- the genitals,
used to reproduce the human species. Further, biological differentiation takes place in terms of
SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS- distinctive physical traits of males and females not directly
linked to reproduction.

3. In rare cases, hormone imbalance before birth results in a HERMAPHRODITE wherein a person
possesses both the male and female genital organ.

4. There also rare cases of people who choose to change their sex through surgery, usually
from male to female sex. They are known as TRANSGENDERS.

5. SEXUAL ORIENTATION refers to the manner in which people experience sexual arousal and achieve
sexual pleasure. HETEROSEXUAL pertains to those persons which sexually attractive to the opposite
sex. HOMOSEXUALS are those who are sexually attracted to the same sex. BISEXUALS have some
combination of heterosexual and homosexual orientation.

6. GENDER refers to human traits linked by culture to each sex. It varies across cultures and overtime.

7. Gender is a fundamental element of the SOCIALIZATION process. From birth until death, human
feelings, thoughts, and actions reflect cultural definition of gender.

8. GENDER AND FAMILY

Sociologist Jessie Bernard (1981) suggest that males and females are born into two different worlds
 within a single society: the pink world of the girls and the blue world of the boys. In a patriarchal
society, there is a little surprise at the fact that most couples express preference for male children
(Lengermann and Wallace, 1985). In a study conducted, it revealed that the women typically handled
the “female” child tenderly, with frequent hugs and caresses, while the male child was treated more
aggressively, often lifted up in the air or bounced on the knee (Bonner, 1984).

9. GENDER AND THE PEER GROUP

On reaching school age, children begin to interact more intensively outside the family, especially with
others of their own age. After a year observing fifth graders at play, Janet Lever (1978) concluded that
peer group activities for boys and girls differ considerably, providing in each case a distinctive type of
socialization. Boys typically engaged in team sports and girls play games like jump rope, or simply talk,
sing and dance together in small groups.

9. GENDER IN SCHOOL
Schools continue the process of placing males and females within distinctive social worlds. In a study
conducted by Weitzman(1972), In most books, males were the focus of attention with females
acknowledge far less frequently. For example, there are to pictures of male children for every picture of
female children, thus the researcher concluded that schools impose impression that girls are not very
important.

10. GENDER AND MASS MEDIA

Mass media is a powerful force in the socialization process. Films, magazines, and television have a
significant effect on the ways we think and act. In general, males play the brilliant detectives, fearless
explorers, skilled surgeons, and interesting conversationalists. Males take charge, they give orders
and are portrayed as competent and capable. Women on the other hand have been mostly portrayed
as reliant on males -less competent and more often the targets on comedy (Bushby, 1975).

11. GENDER AND ADULT SOCIALIZATION

Our gender identity and gender roles typically come to feel natural well before we become adults. For
this reason, appropriately feminine and masculine attitudes, behavior and patterns of speech are
commonly reinforced in the social interaction of adults (Spender, 1980). In her research, Pamela
Fishman (1978) discovered that even in conversation, males assume a position of dominance over
females.

12. In STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALIST perspective, Sociologist Talcott Parsons explained that gender
plays an important part in maintaining the society. Females served to maintain the internal operation
of the family, managing the household, and taking primary responsibility for raising children. ‘Males
function to connect the family to the larger world, primarily through their participation in the labor
force. He further explained that individuals are prepared to assume these differing adult
responsibilities through socialization process.

13. SOCIAL CONFLICT ANALYSIS suggest that the relations between males and females is not one of
complementarity but rather one of inequality. Gender is seen as benefiting males, while women are a
socially disadvantage minority group (Hacker, 1974). Like racial and ethnic minorities, females are
subject to prejudice and discrimination in a patriarchal society (Lengermann and Wallace, 1985).

14. A study conducted by Margaret Mead in Papua New Guinea:

A. Arapesh – both male and female were feminine. Both are cooperative, unaggressive, and sensitive
to the needs of others.
B. Mundugumur – Both males and females were typically selfish, aggressive, and insensitive to other
people- both were masculine.
C. Tchumbuli- reversed the concept of gender in the mainstream culture. Females were dominant and
rational, while males were submissive and emotional.
 Meads’s research is therefore a strong support for the conclusion that gender is a creation of a
society.

8. FEMINISM is the belief in the social inequality of sexes, and the organized opposition to patriarchy and
sexism.
A. Liberal type of feminism believes that education is the only means to attain equality among sexes.
B. Socialist type identifies GENDER as the culprit in explaining why women are discriminated and
abused in the society, hence, aims to eradicate it.
C. Radical type of feminism believes that equal treatment of the members by the society regardless of
sex can only be attained through a social revolution.

GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS

1. An AGGREGATE refers to a number of people who are in the same place at the same time but who
interacts little, if at all. People riding on a bus is an example of an aggregate.
A number of people can also be identified in terms of some common status, such as being mothers,
soldiers, or homeowners. Such status is the basis of a CATEGORY rather than as social group.

2. A SOCIAL GROUP is defined as two or more people who have a degree of common identity and who
interact on regular basis (Macionis, 1989).

3. There are two-types of a social group. The PRIMARY GROUP is typically social group in which
relationships are personal and enduring. Cooley (1962) described this group is characterized of having
strong and lasting personal loyalties. According to him, the family perhaps is the most important
primary group within any society.

A contrasting social group is the SECONDARY GROUP which is defined as a typically large and
impersonal social group based on some special interest or activity (Macionis, 1989). Members of this
group share situational ties that are called secondary relationships. An example of this are those
individuals who worked in the same office, enroll in the same college course, or belong to a particular
organization.

4.

Characteristic PRIMARY GROUP SECONDARY

1. QUALITY OF Personal orientation Goal orientation

RELATIONSHIP

2. DURATION OF Usually long-term Often short term

RELATIONSHIP

3. BREADTH OF Broad. Usually involving Narrow. Usually involving few

RELATIONSHIP a lot of activities. activities.

As an end itself.
4. SUBJECTIVE As a means to an end.
PERCEPTION OF
RELATIONSHIPS
Families, close
5. TYPICAL EXAMPLE relationships
 Co-workers, political
organizations

5. LEADERSHIP is one important element of group dynamics, which refers to the manner in group
operates (Macionis, 1989). There are two different leadership roles that are likely to be held by different
individuals (Bales and Slater, 1955). The first is INSTRUMENTAL LEADERSHIP which refers to
leadership that emphasizes the completion of a task by a social group. Group members look to
instrumental leaders to “get things done.”

The second is EXPRESSIVE LEADERSHIP which is defined as leadership that emphasizes the
collective well-being of the members of the social group. Expressive leaders are less concerned with
the performance goals of a group than they are with providing emotional support to group members
and attempting to minimize tension and conflict among them. Members look for expressive leaders for
personal support and to maintain stable relationships within the group.

6. Leaders are further distinguished by the extent to which they involve other group members in decision
making (Macionis, 1989). AUTHORITARIAN LEADERS are instrumental leaders in their outlook,
making decisions on their own and demanding strict compliance from subordinates. DEMOCRATIC
LEADERS have more expressive qualities, seeking to include all group members in the process of
making decisions.

7. Another important dimension of group dynamics is the desire of members to conform to cultural
patterns adopted by the social group (Macionis, 1989). The demand for conformity is not limited to
primary groups. Even social interaction with unfamiliar people in a group setting can generate
considerable pressure toward conformity.

8. On an experiment conducted by Solomon Asch (1952), many of us are willing to compromise our own
judgment in the interest of group conformity.

9. Stanley Milgram, a student of Solomon Asch conducted an experiment on conformity. Base on such,
he concluded that people are unlikely to question those in positions of authority, even when common
sense suggest they should (Milgram, 1963).

10. Intrigued by the idea that people can be led to engage in behavior that violates common sense, Irving
Janis (1972) examined historical documents pertaining to the actions of high government officials. His
findings suggest that the powerful are not immune to group pressure towards conformity.

11. Social groups can have powerful influence on how each of us thinks and acts. This reflects the fact
that people typically make evaluations and decisions by taking account others and often use social
groups to which they belong for this purpose (Asch, 1952). A REFERENCE GROUP is used to
designate a social group that serves as a point of reference for individuals in evaluation and decision
making. Social group can also be reference by non- members.

Stouffer (1949) demonstrates that we do not make judgments about ourselves isolation, nor do we
compare ourselves with everyone. Rather, we use specific social groups as standards in developing
own attitudes.

12. On the basis of sex, employment, family ties, personal tastes, or some other category, people often
identify positively with one social group while opposing other groups (Tajfel,1982). An INGROUP is a
social group with which people identify and toward which they feel a sense of loyalty. On the other
hand, an ingroup exist in relation to OUTGROUP which is a social group with which people do not
identify and toward which they feel a sense of competition or opposition.

13. A SOCIAL NETWORK designates a web of social ties that links people, but with less common identity
 and less social interaction than are typical of a social group (Marsden,1987). Unlike a group, a
network brings people into only occasional contact with one another. Example this is the Junior
Philippine Institute of Accountant and the Philippine Association of Language Pathologists.

Second is EXPRESSIVE LEADERSHIP which is defined as leadership that emphasizes the

collective well-being of the members of the social group. Expressive leaders are less concerned with
the performance goals of a group than they are with providing emotional support to group members
and attempting to minimize tension and conflict among them. Members look for expressive leaders for
personal support and to maintain stable relationships within the group.

14. FORMAL ORGANIZATIONS refer to a large, secondary group that is formally organized to facilitate in
achieving its goal (Macionis, 1989). Amitai Etzioni (1975) has identified three types of Formal
Organizations. People join NORMATIVE organizations to pursue some goal they believe to be morally
worthwhile, receiving personal satisfaction and prestige for their efforts rather than monetary rewards.
Examples of this are community service groups ( The Lions Club, Rotary Club), political parties, and
Religious organizations. People are forced to join COERCIVE organizations as a form of punishment
(prisons) or treatment (hospitals). The goal is to segregate people as “inmates” or “patients” for a
period of time. UTILITARIAN organization is distinguished by the material benefits they provide to
their members. Large business enterprises, for example, are organized to generate profit for their
owners and income in the form of salaries and wages for their employees.

15. BUREAUCRACY is an organizational model rationally designed to perform complex task efficiently
(Weber, 1978). The essence of bureaucratic organization is deliberately enacting policies that control
organizational operations. By doing this, the organization intends to become as efficient as possible in
reaching its goals.

16. Max Weber (1978) pointed six distinctive qualities of bureaucratic organizations: a) specialization, b)
hierarchy, c) enacted rules and regulations, d) technical competence, e) impersonality among the
members, and f) use of formal and written communications.

14. FORMAL ORGANIZATIONS refer to a large, secondary group that is formally organized to facilitate in
achieving its goal (Macionis, 1989). Amitai Etzioni (1975) has identified three types of Formal
Organizations. People join NORMATIVE organizations to pursue some goal they believe to be morally
worthwhile, receiving personal satisfaction and prestige for their efforts rather than monetary rewards.
Examples of this are community service groups (The Lions Club, Rotary Club), political parties, and
religious organizations. People are forced to join COERCIVE organizations as a form of punishment
(prisons) or treatment (hospitals). The goal is to segregate people as “inmates” or “patients” for a
period of time. UTILITARIAN organization is distinguished by the material benefits they provide to
their members. Large business enterprises, for example, are organized to generate profit for their
owners and income in the form of salaries and wages for their employees.

15. BUREAUCRACY is an organizational model rationally designed to perform complex task efficiently
(Weber, 1978). The essence of bureaucratic organization is deliberately enacting policies that control
organizational operations. By doing this, the organization intends to become as efficient as possible in
reaching its goals.

16. Max Weber (1978) pointed six distinctive qualities of bureaucratic organizations:
a) specialization, b) hierarchy, c) enacted rules and regulations, d) technical competence,
e) impersonality among the members, and f) use of formal and written communications.