QUESTION 1: ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS.

A) Draw detailed layout of water treatment plant.

B) Enlist various methods of population forecasting and explain Geometrical

progression method.

1) Arithmetical increase method

2) Geometrical increase method
3) Incremental increase methos
4) Decreasing rate of growth method
5) Simple graphical method
6) Comparative graphical method
7) Zoning method or master plan method
8) Ratio method or apportionment method
9) Logistic curve method

Geometrical Progression Method (Geometric Increase Method):

This method assumes a constant percentage increase in population each time period (year,
decade, etc.). Here's the formula:

Pn = Po [1 + (r/100)] ^n

where:
 • Pn - Population predicted after 'n' time periods
• Po - Last known population
• r - Growth rate (percentage increase) as a decimal (e.g., 2% growth rate = 0.02)
• n - Number of time periods between Po and Pn

Steps to use the Geometric Progression Method:

1. Gather historical population data for the area of interest.

2. Calculate the average growth rate (r) over a specific period. This can be done using the
geometric mean of past growth rates.
3. Choose the forecast period (number of time periods, n).
4. Plug Po, r, and n into the formula to solve for Pn, the predicted population.

Advantages:

• Easy to understand and apply.

• Useful for short-term forecasts in areas with relatively stable growth rates.

Disadvantages:

• Doesn't account for factors that might change growth rate (e.g., economic shifts, policy
changes).
• Less accurate for long-term forecasts as growth rates often slow down over time.

C) List different Water Demand and Explain Domestic water demand.

1) Domestic water demand

2) Industrial water demand
3) Institutional and commercial water demand
4) Demand for public use
5) Fire demand
6) Compensate losses demand

Domestic Water Demand

Domestic water demand refers to the water used in residential areas for various household
purposes. This typically accounts for a significant portion of the total water demand in a region,
ranging from 40% to 60% depending on factors like climate, demographics, and lifestyle.

Here's a breakdown of how domestic water is typically used:

• Essential Uses (50-80%)

o Drinking
o Cooking
o Bathing
o Sanitation (toilets)
• Non-Essential Uses (20-50%)
o Laundry
o Dishwashing
 o Vehicle washing
o Gardening
o Swimming pools

The amount of domestic water demand can vary depending on several factors:

• Climate: Hotter and drier climates generally have higher domestic water demand due
to increased use for irrigation and outdoor activities.
• Household size: Larger households naturally consume more water.
• Income level: Wealthier households may tend to use more water for non-essential
purposes like lawn watering and swimming pools.
• Water pricing: Water prices can influence water conservation efforts. Higher prices
may encourage people to use water more efficiently.
• Appliance efficiency: Water-efficient appliances can significantly reduce domestic
water consumption.

Conservation Efforts

It's crucial to conserve domestic water as freshwater resources are finite and unevenly
distributed globally. Here are some ways to reduce domestic water demand:

• Fix leaky faucets and toilets.

• Shorten shower times.
• Install low-flow showerheads and faucet aerators.
• Wash full loads of laundry and dishes.
• Use water-efficient appliances.
• Water lawns and gardens efficiently during cooler times of the day.
• Implement rainwater harvesting systems.

OR
D) Explain various stages involves in Filtration process.

Pre-filtration (Optional):

• In some cases, a pre-filtration stage might be used to remove large debris, leaves, or
other coarse materials. This can involve screens, grates, or even simple strainers.

Coagulation and Flocculation:

• This stage deals with very small suspended particles that wouldn't be easily trapped by
filters.
o Coagulation: Chemicals like alum or ferric chloride are added to destabilize
the particles, causing them to clump together.
o Flocculation: Gentle mixing is introduced to allow these destabilized particles
to collide and form larger flocs (clumps).

Sedimentation:

• The heavier flocs settle down due to gravity in large basins. The clarified water remains
on top, ready for further filtration.
 Filtration:

• This is the primary separation stage where water passes through a filter media. The
media can be:
o Sand: Commonly used, with varying grain sizes to trap different sized particles.
o Granular Activated Carbon (GAC): Effective in removing organic compounds
and chlorine taste/odor.
o Membranes: Microfiltration, ultrafiltration, or reverse osmosis membranes can
remove even smaller particles, bacteria, and viruses depending on the type used.

Post-filtration (Optional):

• Additional treatment steps might be included after filtration, depending on the desired
water quality. These could involve:
o Disinfection: Using chlorine or UV light to kill bacteria and other
microorganisms.
o pH Adjustment: Adjusting water acidity/alkalinity for taste, corrosion control,
or other purposes.

QUESTION 2: ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS.

A) Enlist various Physical, Chemical and Biological Impurities in water.
Physical parameters
1) Turbidity
2) Colour
3) Odour and test
4) Suspended solids
5) Temperature
Chemical parameters
1) Total dissolved solids
2) pH
3) Acidity
4) Alkalinity
5) Hardness
6) Chlorides
7) Fluorides
8) Metals
9) Organic matters
Biological parameters
1) E-coli test
2) Bacteria
3) Viruses
4) Protozoa
5) Helminth
 B) List out and explain different sources of water with sketch

Different Sources of Water

Water is essential for life, and we obtain it from various sources. Here's a breakdown of the
main sources with illustrations:

1. Surface Water:

• This refers to water bodies on Earth's surface, including:

o Lakes: Large, natural depressions filled with freshwater.
o Rivers: Flowing bodies of freshwater that eventually drain into oceans or seas.
o Streams: Smaller versions of rivers, often feeding into them.
o Reservoirs: Artificial lakes created by dams on rivers to store water.
• Surface water is readily accessible but often requires treatment to remove impurities
and contaminants before it's safe for drinking.

2. Groundwater:

• This refers to freshwater found beneath the Earth's surface in saturated rock or soil
layers called aquifers.
• Groundwater is accessed through wells and springs.
 • It's generally less susceptible to pollution than surface water but may require treatment
depending on the aquifer's location and mineral content.

3. Rainwater:

• This refers to water collected from precipitation (rain, snow, hail).

• Rainwater harvesting systems collect and store rainwater for various uses, including
irrigation, drinking (with proper treatment), and other household purposes.
• Rainwater is a sustainable source but can be limited by the amount of rainfall in an area.

4. Glaciers and Ice Caps:

• These are large masses of frozen freshwater found on land, primarily at the Earth's poles
and high mountains.
• While not a direct source for most users, they contribute to freshwater supplies as they
melt and release water into rivers and streams.

5. Desalinated Water:
 • This refers to freshwater obtained by removing salt from seawater.
• Desalination is becoming increasingly important in regions with limited freshwater
resources.
• However, the process can be energy-intensive and have environmental impacts.

6. Treated Wastewater:

• Wastewater refers to used water from homes, industries, and commercial

establishments.
• Treated wastewater can be reused for irrigation, toilet flushing, or industrial processes
after undergoing a multi-stage treatment process to remove contaminants.
• Wastewater reuse helps conserve freshwater resources but requires proper treatment to
ensure safety.

C) List out different method of disinfection and explain. Explain break point
chlorination

1. Chlorination:

• One of the most widely used methods due to its effectiveness, affordability, and ease
of application.
• Chlorine, in various forms like gas, liquid, or hypochlorite compounds, is added to
water.
• Chlorine reacts with and kills microorganisms by disrupting their cell walls.
• Advantages: Effective against a broad range of pathogens, provides residual chlorine
for continued disinfection in the distribution system.
• Disadvantages: Can react with naturally occurring organic matter in water to form
disinfection byproducts (DBPs) which may be harmful at high levels.

2. Ultraviolet (UV) Disinfection:

• Uses ultraviolet light with a specific wavelength (typically 254 nm) to damage the DNA
or RNA of microorganisms, rendering them inactive.
• Advantages: Effective against a broad range of pathogens, leaves no residual
disinfectant (no taste or odor), environmentally friendly.
• Disadvantages: Requires high-quality water with low turbidity for effective
penetration of UV light, needs uninterrupted power supply for continuous operation.

3. Ozonation:

• Ozone (O3) is a powerful oxidizing agent that disrupts the cell membranes of
microorganisms.
• Ozone decomposes back to oxygen (O2) after disinfection, leaving no residual
disinfectant.
• Advantages: Effective against a broad range of pathogens, leaves no residual
disinfectant.
• Disadvantages: Requires complex and energy-intensive equipment for ozone
generation, can be less effective in cold water.

4. Chlorine Dioxide (ClO2):

 • A chlorine-based oxidant used as an alternative to chlorine.
• ClO2 is more selective in its reactions and produces fewer DBPs than chlorine.
• Advantages: Effective against a broad range of pathogens, less susceptible to forming
DBPs compared to chlorine.
• Disadvantages: More expensive than chlorine, can be corrosive to some pipe materials.

5. Other Methods:

• Electrolysis: Uses electricity to generate chlorine disinfectant from salt (sodium

chloride) brine solution.
• Potassium permanganate: Primarily used for taste and odor control but has some
disinfection properties.

Breakpoint Chlorination Explained

Breakpoint chlorination is a specific method within chlorination that addresses a potential

drawback of using chlorine. Let's delve into it:

• When chlorine is added to water, it reacts with various components present:

o Microorganisms: Chlorine kills these, achieving disinfection.
o Reducing agents: These consume some chlorine, reducing its disinfecting
power (initial chlorine demand).
o Ammonia and other nitrogenous compounds: These react with chlorine to
form combined chlorine residuals (chloramines).
• The Breakpoint: As chlorine addition continues, it reaches a point (breakpoint) where
all the demand from reducing agents and nitrogenous compounds is satisfied.
• Beyond Breakpoint: After the breakpoint, any additional chlorine remains as free
chlorine residual. This free chlorine residual provides continuous disinfection
throughout the water distribution system.

Benefits of Breakpoint Chlorination:

• Ensures sufficient free chlorine residual for ongoing disinfection.

• Reduces the formation of taste-and-odor causing chloramines compared to using only
enough chlorine to meet initial chlorine demand.

OR
A) What is Coagulant? Enlist various coagulants used for treatment of Water.

A coagulant is a chemical agent used in water treatment to cause suspended particles to clump
together. These tiny particles are often negatively charged, repelling each other and remaining
dispersed in the water. Coagulants disrupt this repulsion, allowing the particles to collide and
form larger flocs (clumps). These heavier flocs then settle out of the water or are more easily
removed through filtration.

Here are some various coagulants commonly used for water treatment:

Inorganic Coagulants:
 • Aluminum-based:
o Alum (Aluminum Sulfate): The most widely used coagulant due to its
effectiveness and affordability. It reacts with water to form positively charged
hydrolysis products that neutralize the negative charge on suspended particles,
causing them to clump together.
o Poly Aluminium Chloride (PAC): A more efficient form of aluminum
coagulant, requiring lower doses and producing denser flocs.
• Iron-based:
o Ferric Sulfate: Effective for removing organic matter, tastes, and odors from
water. It can stain pipes at high doses.
o Ferric Chloride: Similar to ferric sulfate but more soluble, making it suitable
for cold water applications.

Organic Coagulants:

• Polyelectrolytes: These are synthetic polymers with long chains that carry either
positive or negative charges. They can act as coagulants by bridging between oppositely
charged particles, causing them to aggregate.

The choice of coagulant for a specific water treatment application depends on several factors,
including:

• Type of impurities: Different coagulants are more effective at removing specific types
of suspended particles.
• Water quality: Factors like pH, turbidity, and organic matter content can influence
coagulant selection.
• Cost and availability: Alum is generally the most cost-effective option, but others
might be preferred for specific needs.

B) Compare slow sand filter and rapid sand filter.

Slow Sand Filter vs. Rapid Sand Filter: A Comparison

Both slow sand filters (SSF) and rapid sand filters (RSF) are used for water treatment, but they
differ significantly in their operation, efficiency, and suitability for various applications. Here's
a breakdown of their key differences:

Filtration Rate:
• SSF: Slow (around 0.1 to 0.4 meters per hour). Water percolates slowly through a
thick layer of sand, relying on biological processes for purification.
• RSF: Rapid (around 4 to 21 meters per hour). Water moves quickly through a thinner
sand layer, requiring pre-treatment for coagulation and flocculation.
Mechanism of Purification:
 • SSF: Removes impurities through a combination of physical straining, biological
activity, and adsorption. A biofilm layer on the sand surface traps particles and
pathogens, while microorganisms in the biofilm break down organic matter.
• RSF: Primarily relies on physical straining of particles trapped by the sand media.
Pre-treatment through coagulation and flocculation is necessary to create larger flocs
that can be effectively captured by the filter.
Efficiency:
• SSF: Highly effective in removing bacteria, viruses, and protozoa due to the
biological activity and long filtration time. Can also remove some color and taste &
odor compounds.
• RSF: Less effective in removing bacteria and viruses on its own, requiring pre-
treatment and chlorination for disinfection. May not remove color or taste & odor issues
as effectively as SSF.
Maintenance:
• SSF: Requires minimal maintenance. The biofilm layer self-cleans through periodic
sloughing. However, the filter bed needs cleaning (removal of top layer) every few
months to years.
• RSF: Requires more frequent maintenance. The filter needs backwashing regularly
(reversing water flow) to remove accumulated particles and prevent clogging.
Operational Considerations:
• SSF: Requires larger land area due to the slow filtration rate. More suitable for areas
with consistent, good quality raw water and reliable power supply (for pumping).
• RSF: Requires less land area and is more efficient in terms of water processing speed.
More suitable for treating higher volumes of water or water with higher turbidity.
Summary Table:

Feature Slow Sand Filter (SSF) Rapid Sand Filter (RSF)

Filtration Rate Slow (0.1-0.4 m/hr) Rapid (4-21 m/hr)

Physical straining, biological

Purification Mechanism Physical straining
activity, adsorption
 Efficiency Requires pre-treatment and
High
(Bacteria/Viruses) disinfection

Maintenance Low (periodic cleaning) High (regular backwashing)

Land Area Requirement High Low

Consistent good quality raw water, High volume water, higher

Suitability
reliable power turbidity

Choosing the Right Filter:

The selection between SSF and RSF depends on various factors like raw water quality, desired
treatment level, available space, and operational considerations. SSF excels for its simplicity
and high removal efficiency, while RSF offers faster processing and smaller footprint for
treating larger volumes.

C) What is water softening? Explain Zeolite process.

Water Softening Explained

Hard water contains dissolved minerals, primarily calcium and magnesium, which can cause
various problems. These include:

• Soap scum: Hard water reacts poorly with soap, leaving a filmy residue on skin, hair,
and surfaces.
• Scale buildup: Minerals can accumulate in pipes, appliances (like water heaters), and
plumbing fixtures, reducing efficiency and lifespan.
• Spotty dishes: Dishes washed in hard water can develop white mineral deposits.
• Dry skin and hair: Hard water can leave skin and hair feeling dry and irritated.

Water softening is a process that removes these hardness-causing minerals from water. This
makes the water "softer," improving its cleaning ability and reducing the issues mentioned
above.
Zeolite Process for Water Softening

The zeolite process is a common method for water softening that utilizes a natural or synthetic
material called zeolite. Here's a breakdown of how it works:

1. Zeolite Bed: A tank filled with zeolite granules is used. Zeolite is a porous material
with a specific internal structure.
2. Ion Exchange: Hard water containing calcium (Ca²⁺) and magnesium (Mg²⁺) ions
passes through the zeolite bed.
3. Replacement: The zeolite contains sodium (Na⁺) ions within its structure. As hard
water flows through, these sodium ions exchange places with the calcium and
magnesium ions in the water. Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ ions are attracted to the negatively charged
sites within the zeolite, replacing the Na⁺ ions.
4. Softened Water: The resulting water exiting the tank is now "softened" as it contains
sodium ions instead of the hardness-causing calcium and magnesium.
5. Regeneration: Over time, the zeolite's capacity to exchange ions becomes exhausted.
To maintain effectiveness, the zeolite bed needs regeneration.
6. Brine Solution: A concentrated salt (sodium chloride) solution, called brine, is
passed through the zeolite bed in the reverse direction.
7. Releasing Captured Ions: The high concentration of sodium ions in the brine
displaces the captured calcium and magnesium ions back into the brine solution.
8. Waste Discharge: The spent brine, now containing the hardness minerals, is
discharged for proper disposal.
9. Regenerated Zeolite: After regeneration, the zeolite bed is ready to resume softening
hard water effectively.
Advantages of Zeolite Process:
• Effective in removing hardness minerals.
• Relatively simple and reliable operation.
• Requires minimal maintenance compared to other methods.
• Compact and efficient for residential applications.
Disadvantages of Zeolite Process:
• Requires regeneration with salt solution, adding operational costs.
• The softened water has a higher sodium content, which might be a concern for people
with sodium-restricted diets. (Consult a doctor for specific advice)
 • Not effective in removing other water contaminants.
Conclusion:

The zeolite process is a popular and effective method for water softening in homes and various
applications. It provides numerous benefits in reducing the problems associated with hard
water. However, it's essential to consider the potential impact of increased sodium content and
the need for regeneration with brine solution.