Linear Algebra Done Right

Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics
Sheldon Axler
Linear Algebra
Done Right
Fourth Edition
Series Editors
Pamela Gorkin, Mathematics Department, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, PA, USA
Jessica Sidman, Mathematics and Statistics, Amherst College, Amherst, MA, USA
Advisory Board
Colin Adams, Williams College, Williamstown, MA, USA
Jayadev S. Athreya, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
Nathan Kaplan, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
Jill Pipher, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
Jeremy Tyson, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics are generally aimed at third- and fourth-

year undergraduate mathematics students at North American universities. These
texts strive to provide students and teachers with new perspectives and novel
approaches. The books include motivation that guides the reader to an appreciation
of interrelations among different aspects of the subject. They feature examples that
illustrate key concepts as well as exercises that strengthen understanding.
Sheldon Axler
Linear Algebra Done Right

Fourth Edition
Sheldon Axler
San Francisco, CA, USA
ISSN 0172-6056 ISSN 2197-5604 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-031-41025-3 ISBN 978-3-031-41026-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41026-0
Mathematics Subject Classification (2020): 15-01, 15A03, 15A04, 15A15, 15A18, 15A21
© Sheldon Axler 1996, 1997, 2015, 2024. This book is an open access publication.
Open Access This book is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial
4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits any noncom-
mercial use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you
give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons
license and indicate if changes were made.
The images or other third party material in this book are included in the book’s Creative Commons
license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the book’s
Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the
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This work is subject to copyright. All commercial rights are reserved by the author(s), whether the whole
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recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or
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Linear Algebra Done Right

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Linear Algebra Done Right

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Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics

Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics are generally aimed at third- and fourth-

Linear Algebra Done Right

ISSN 0172-6056 ISSN 2197-5604 (electronic)

Paper in this product is recyclable.

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