Electrochemical Machining (ECM) –

Working Principle, Equipment, Advantages

and Disadvantages with Application
Electrochemical machining (ECM) is a machining process in which
electrochemical process is used to remove materials from the workpiece. In the
process, workpiece is taken as anode and tool is taken as cathode. The two
electrodes workpiece and tool is immersed in an electrolyte (such as NaCl).
When the voltage is applied across the two electrodes, the material removal
from the workpiece starts. The workpiece and tool is placed very close to each
other without touching. In ECM the material removal takes place at atomic
level so it produces a mirror finish surface.
Working Principle

ECM working is opposite to the electrochemical or galvanic coating or

deposition process.

During electrochemical machining process, the reactions take place at the

electrodes i.e. at the anode (workpiece) and cathode (tool) and within the
electrolyte.
Let’s take an example of machining low carbon steel which is mainly
composed of ferrous alloys (Fe). We generally use neutral salt solution of
sodium chloride (NaCl) as the electrolyte to machine ferrous alloys. The ionic
dissociation of NaCl and water takes place in the electrolyte as shown below.

As the potential difference is applied across the electrode, the movement of

ions starts in between the tool and w/p. The positive ions moves towards the
tool (cathode) and negative ions move towards the workpiece.

At cathode the hydrogen ions takes electrons and gets converted into
hydrogen gas.

In the same way the iron atoms comes out from the anode (w/p) as Fe++ ions.

Within the Electrolyte, the sodium ions combines with Hydroxyl ions and form
sodium hydroxide and ferrous ion combine with Chloride ions and forms
ferrous chloride. Also iron ions combine with hydroxyl ions and form Iron
hydroxide.

In the electrolyte, the FeCl2 and Fe(OH)2 produced and gets precipitated in
the form of sludge and settle down. In this way material is removed from the
workpiece as sludge.
The various reactions taking place in the Electrochemical machining process
are in the figure given below.

The ECM system has the following modules or Main Equipment of ECM

1. Power Supply
2. Electrolyte filtration and delivery system
3. Tool Feed system
4. Working Tank
Working of Electrochemical Machining

 First, the workpiece is assembled in the fixture and the tool is

brought close to the workpiece. The tool and workpiece is
immersed in a suitable electrolyte.
 After that, a potential difference is applied across the w/p (anode)
and tool (cathode). The removal of material starts. The material is
removed in the same manner as we have discussed above in the
working principle.
 Tool feed system advances the tool towards the w/p and always
keeps a required gap in between them. The material from the w/p
comes out as positive ions and combine with the ions present in
the electrolyte and precipitates as sludge. Hydrogen gas is
liberated at the cathode during the machining process.
 Since the dissociation of the material from the w/p takes place at
atomic level, so it gives excellent surface finish.
 The sludge from the tank is taken out and separated from the
electrolyte. The electrolyte after filtration again transported to the
tank for the ECM process.
Application

 The ECM process is used for die sinking operation, profiling and
contouring, drilling, grinding, trepanning and micro machining.
 It is used for machining steam turbine blades within closed limits.
Advantages

 Negligible tool wear.

 Complex and concave curvature parts can be produced easily by
the use of convex and concave tools.
 No forces and residual stress are produced, because there is no
direct contact between tool and workpiece.
 An excellent surface finish is produced.
 Less heat is generated.
Disadvantages

 The risk of corrosion for tool, w/p and equipment increases in the
case of saline and acidic electrolyte.
 Electrochemical machining is capable of machining electrically
conductive materials only.
 High power consumption.
 High initial investment cost.
Process Parameter

S.no Parameters Values

1. Power Supply

Type Direct Current

Voltage 2 to 35 V

Current 50 to 40,000 A

Current Density 0.1 A/mm2 to 5 A/mm2

2. Electrolyte

Material NaCl and NaNO3

 Temperature 20 oC to 50 oC

Flow rate 20 lpm/100 A current

Pressure 0.5 to 20 bar

Dilution 100 g/l to 500 g/l

3. Working gap 0.1 mm to 2mm

4. Overcut 0.2 mm to 3 mm

5. Feed rate 0.5 mm/min to 15 mm/min

6. Electrode material Copper, brass and bronze

7. Surface roughness (Ra) 0.2 to 1.5 μm

Plasma Arc Machining Process | What Is

the plasma of Plasma Arc Machining? |
Working Principle of Plasma Arc
Machining
Plasma Arc Machining Process:

 The plank arch is used to remove material from the workpiece. In

this process, a high-velocity jet of a high-temperature gauge is
used to melt and remove material from the workpiece. This high
velocity of hot gas is also known as place.
 When a gas or air is heated to a temperature of more than 5000 °
C, it will ionize into positive elements, negative elements, and
neutral elements. When a gas or air is ionized, its temperature
rises from 11000 ° C to 28000 ° C, and thus the gas gauge is
called corrosion.
 The gas or air is heated by an arc, and the beverage pl by tap gas
is used to remove materials from the workpieces. So the whole
process is called a plot arc.
 In this process, a high velocity of high-temperature air is used to
melt the material from the workpiece by melting.
 The gas used in the plume arc is chosen according to the metal
that is used as the workpiece.
 Plot arc recordings are used to cut alloy steels, steel, online,
nickel, copper, and cast iron.

Plasma Explained:
 When a solid is heated to a melting point, it turns into a liquid, and
when a liquid is heated, it turns into a gas.
 If the gas is heated to about 2000 ° C, the molecules will separate
into individual atoms.
 If the temperature is raised to around 3000 ° C, the electrons of
the gas atoms will be displaced, and the atoms are ionized, and
this ionized gas is called plasma.

What Is the plasma of Plasma Arc

Machining?
 Solids, liquids, and gases are the three familiar states of matter. In
general, when a solid is heated, it turns into a fluid, and the liquids
eventually become gases.
 When a gas is heated to a sufficiently high temperature, the atoms
(molecules) are divided into free electrons and ions. The kinetic
properties of this gas of free electrons and ions are sufficiently
different from the normal condensed gas. So, it can be considered.
 The fourth position of the case and is given a new name, PLASMA
‘. In other words, when the lower gas is heated to a sufficiently
high temperature of the order of 11,000 ° C to 28,000 ° C, it
becomes partially ionized and is known as a ‘plasma.’ It is a
mixture of free electrons, positively charged ions, and neutral
atoms.
 This plasma is used for the metal extraction process. The plasma
arc machining process is used to cut alloy steels, stainless steel,
cast iron, copper, nickel, titanium, and aluminum, etc.

Working Principle of Plasma Arc Machining:

 In the plasma arc machining process, the material is removed by
directing a high-velocity jet of ionized gas at high temperatures
(11000 ° C to 28,000 ° C) on the workpiece.
 This high-temperature plasma jet melts the contents of the
workpiece.
Process Details of Plasma Arc Machining:

Five types of descriptions are given below.

 Plasma Gun.
 Power Supply and Terminals.
 Cooling Mechanism.
 Tooling.
 Workpiece.

#1. Plasma Gun-

 Gases, like plasma, are used to make nitrogen, argon, hydrogen,
or a mixture of these gases.
 The plasma gun consists of a tungstens electrode that is fitted into
the chamber.
 The electrodes are given negative polarity, and the gun nozzle is
given positive polarity.
 The supply of gases remains in the gun. A strong arc is established
between two terminals, anodes, and cathode. There is a collision
between the molecules of the gas and electrons of the established
arc.
  As a result of this collision, the gas molecules ionize, and heat
develops.
 This hot and ionized gas called plasmas is directed to the
workpieces with high velocity.
 The installed arc is controlled by the supply rate of gases.

#2. Power Supply and Terminals-

 A power supply (DC) is used to develop two terminals in a plasma
gun.
 A tungsten electrode is inserted into the gun, and a cathode is
made, and the gun nozzle is the anode.
 A massive potential difference is applied to the electrodes to
develop a plasma state of gases.

#3. Cooling Mechanism-

 As we know that hot gases continuously exit the nozzle; hence
there is a possibility of heating it.
 Water jackets are used to surround the nozzle to avoid
overheating.

#4. Tooling-
 There is no directly visible device in pam. A concentrated spray of
hoit, plasma state gases serves as cutting tools.

#5. Workpiece-
 The workpiece of various materials can be processed by the pam
process.
 These materials are aluminum, stainless steel, magnesium, and
carbon and alloy steel.
 All materials that can be processed by LBM can also be processed
by the pam process.

Construction of Plasma Arc Machining:

 The schematic arrangement of plasma arc machining is shown in
fig.
 The plasma arc cutting torch picks up the tungsten electrode in a
small chamber.
  These electrodes are connected to the negative terminal of a D.C.
power supply. So it acts as a cathode.
 The positive terminal of a D.C. power supply is connected to the
nozzle formed near the bottom of the chamber. So, the nozzle acts
as an anode.
 A short passage is provided on one side of the torch to supply gas
to the chamber.
 Since water is circulated around the torch, the water in the
electrode and nozzle remains cool.

Working of Plasma Arc Machining:

 First, when a dc power is supplied to the circuit, a strong arc is

produced between the cathode (electrodes) and the anode
(nozzle).
 After that, gas is supplied to the chambers. This gas can be a
mixture of hydrogen, nitrogen, argon, or gases chosen according
to the metal being worked.
 The gas used in the process is heated using an arc generated
between the cathode and the anode. This gas heats at very high
temperatures from 11000 ° c to 28000 ° c.
  As the arc comes in contact with the gas, there is a collision
between the electrons of the arc & the molecules of the gas, and
the gas molecules will separate into different atoms.
 Due to the high temperatures generates by the arc, electrons from
some atoms will be displaced, and the atoms are ionized
(electrically charged), and the gas is converted into plasma. As the
gas is ionized, a large amount of thermal energy is released.
 After the gas is ionized, this high temperature ionized gas is
directed towards the workpiece with high velocity.
Electric arc has some other benefits, such as it increases the
temperature of the ionized gas, makes the beam approximately
parallel, and increases the velocity of the gas.
 As the plasma jet approaches the workpiece, the plasma melts the
workpiece, and the high-velocity gas blows the molten metal.
 In this way, plasm arc machining is used to remove material from
the workpiece.

Advantages of Plasma Arc Machining:

Followings are the advantages of pam that you must know :

 In plasma arc machinings, hard and brittle metals can be made

easily.
 It can be applied to almost all types of metal.
 The best parts of this process are that we get a higher cutting rate.
 We obtain better dimensional accuracy in the case of machining
small cavities.
 It is a simples process to carry out and is a very efficient process.
 It takes a large part in the automatic repairs of jet engine blades.

Disadvantages of Plasma Arc Machining:

Apart from the advantages of the plasmas arc machinings, let us discuss
some of the disadvantages:

 Pam includes various equipment, but the cost of this equipment is

very high.
 This entire machining process consumes high amounts of inert
gases.
  Narrow surfaces are produced, which are unnecessary.
 The most damaging part of pam is that surface changes occur on
the surface.
 The operator or person handling the entire process must take
proper precautions.
 This process can affect the human eye; therefore, a proper googly
or helmet must be worn by an operator.

Applications of Plasma Arc Machining:

 It is mostly used for cryogenic, high-temperature corrosion-
resistant alloys.
 It is also used in the case of titanium plates up to 8 mm thickness.
 PAM is used in nuclear submarine pipe systems and welding steel
rocket motor cases.
 PAM is a staple for applications related to stainless tubes and tube
mills.

EBM Machining | Principle of Electron

Beam Machining | Working of Electron
Beam Machining
EBM Machining:
Electron beam machining is a thermal process that is used to remove
metals during the machining process. In electric beam machining, electrical
energy is used to generate electrons with high energy.

In the electron beam machinings process, a high velocity focused beam of

electrons is used to remove the metal from the workpiece. These electrons
are travellings at half the velocity of light, i.e., 1.6 x 10∧8 m / s. This
process is best suited for the micro-cuttings of materials.

In this article, we will look at the theory of electron beam machining,

fabrication, work, diagrams, process parameters, advantages,
disadvantages of the EBM process. The EBM process has several
important applications that were later explained.

How Does Electron Beam Machining

Process Work?
Electron beam machinings are a process in which high-velocity electrons
are focused into a narrow beam and then directed toward the workpiece for
machining. When this high-velocity electron strikes the workpiece, it melts
and vaporizes the material from the workpiece.

Principle of Electron Beam Machining:

When the high-velocity beams of electrons strike the workpieces, their
kinetic energy is converted into heat. This concentric heat increases the
temperature of the workpiece material and evaporates a small amount of it,
resulting in the removal of materials from the workpiece.

Main Parts Electron Beam Machining

Equipment:
The various parts of equipment used in the EBM machine are:-

 Cathode.
 Annular Bias Grid.
 Anode.
 Magnetic Lenses.
 Electromagnetic Lens.
 Deflector Coils.

#1. Cathode-
The cathode is negatively charged and is used to produce electrons.

#2. Annular Bias Grid-

It is present next to the cathode. An annular bias grid is a spherical-shaped
bias grid and prevents the bend of electrons produced by the cathode. It
acts as a switch and operates the electron gun in pulse mode.

#3. Anode-
It is placed after the annulus bias grid. It is positively charged. An annular
anode attracts the electron beam towards it, and gradually, the velocity of
the electron increases. As the electron beam leaves the anode segment, its
velocity becomes half of the velocity of light.

#4. Magnetic Lenses-

Magnetic lenses reduce the deviation of electron beams and give them
shape. It only allows convergent electrons to pass and occupy electrons
with low energy deviations. This improves the quality of the beam.

#5. Electromagnetic Lens-

This helps to focus the electron beam to the desired location.

#6. Deflector Coils-

The deflector coil carefully guides the high-velocity electron beam to the
desired location on the workpiece and improves the pore size.

Construction of Electron Beam Machining:

The schematic arrangement of electron beam machinings (EBM) is shown
in fig. It includes an electron gun, diaphragm, focusing lens, deflector coil,
work table, etc.

To avoid the collision of accelerated electrons with air molecules, a vacuum

is required. So, the whole EBM setup is a vacuum is enclosed in the
chamber, which carries a vacuum of the order of 10-5 to IO-6 mm of
mercury. This chamber forms a door through which the workpiece is placed
on the table. The door is then locked.
Electron Beam Machining Diagram:
Working of Electron Beam Machining:

When the electron voltage is given a high voltage dc source, the tungsten
filament wire heats up, and the temperature rises to 2500 ° c. Due to these
high temperatures, electrons are emitted from the tungsten filament. These
electrons are guided by a grid cup to travel downward and are attracted by
the anode.

Electrons passings through the anode are accelerated to achieve a velocity

as high as half the velocity of lights (i.e., 1.6 x 10 ^ 8 m / s) by applying 50
to 200 kV at the anode. The high velocities of these electrons are
maintained until they strike the workpiece. This becomes possible because
electrons travel through a vacuum.

This high-velocity electron beam, after leaving the anode, passes through
the tungsten diaphragms and then through the electromagnetics focusing
lens. Focusing lenses are used to focus the electrons beam to the desired
location of the workpiece.

When the electron beam affects the surface of the workpiece, the kinetic
energy of high-velocity electrons is immediately converted to heat energy. It
melts high-intensity heat and vaporizes the work material in place of the
beam effect. Since power density is very high (about 6500 billion w / mm ^
2), it takes a few microseconds to melt and evaporate the material for
impact.

This process is done in repeated pulses of short duration. Pulse frequency

can be from 1 to 16,000 Hz, and the duration can be from 4 to 65,000
microseconds. By alternately focusing and closing the electron beam, the
cutting process can be continued as long as it is needed.

A suitable viewing device is always included with the machine. Therefore, it

becomes easier for the operator to observe the progress of the machining
operation.

Electron Beam Machining Outside the

Vacuum Chamber:
Since complete vacuum systems are more expensive, recent
developments have made it possible to machine outside the vacuum
chamber. In this arrangement, the necessary vacuum within the electron
gun is maintained, and the gases are removed as soon as they enter the
system.

Characteristics of Electron Beam Machining

Processes:
 The electron beam machine operates in pulse mode, and this
biasing is achieved by an annular biased grid.
 Beam currents can be as low as 200 μamp to 1 amp.
 The pulse duration obtained in the EBM machine is 50 μs to 15
ms.
 The energy near the pulse is 100 j / pulse.
 It uses voltages in the range of 150 kV to 200 kV. And this voltage
is used to speed up electrons to about 200,000 km/s.

Advantages of Electron Beam Machining:

Electron beam machining has the following advantages:

 It is an excellent process for micros is finishing (mg / s).

  Very small holes can be prepared for high accuracy in any type of
material.
 Holes of different sizes & shapes can be mechanized.
 There is no mechanical contact between the equipment and the
workpiece.
 It is a fast process. Hardened materials can also be made at a
faster rate than conventional machining.
 The electrical conductor material can be mechanized.
 Physical & metallurgical damage to the workpiece is very minimal.
 This process can be easily automated.
 Extremely close tolerance is attained.
 Brittle and delicate materials can be machined.

Disadvantages of Electron Beam Machining:

Electron beam machining has the following Disadvantages:

 The metal removal rate is very slow.

 The cost of equipment is very high.
 It is not suitable for large workpieces.
 High-skilled operators are required to operate this machine.
 High specific energy consumption.
 A slight taper formed on the holes.
 The Vacuum requirements limit the size of the workpiece.
 It is applicable only for thin materials.
 At the location where the electron beam collides with the material,
a small amount of recycling and metal spatter can occur on the
surface. It should be removed later by abrasive cleaning.
 It is not suitable for the production of fully cylindrical deep holes.

Application of Electron Beam Machining:

Electron beam machining has the following Application:
  Electron Beam Machining is mainly used for micro-machining
operations on thin materials. These operations include drilling,
punching, slotting, scribing, etc.
 Drilling of holes in pressure differential devices used in nuclear
reactors, aircraft engines, etc.
 It is used to remove small broken taps from holes.
 The micro-drilling operation for thin drilling (up to 0.002 mm), wire
drawing dies, parts of the electron microscope, injector nozzle for
diesel engine, etc.
 A microcracking technique is known as “electron beam lithography”
is being used in the manufacture of field emission cathodes,
integrated circuits, and computer memories.
 It is particularly useful for machining materials of low thermal
conductivity and high melting point.

EBM Machine
Our Arcam EBM machines create dimensionally accurate parts quickly and
efficiently by utilizing a high-power electron beam for high melting capacity
and productivity.

Electron Beam Machining

The advantages of Electron-Beam-Machining: EBM provides very high
drilling rates when small holes with high aspect ratios are drilled. The
electron beams in EBM-Machining equipment are generated in an electron
beam gun.

The applications of Electron-Beam Machining are similar to those of Laser-

Beam Machining, except that EBM requires a good vacuum. Thus these
two processes are classified as electro-optical-thermal processes.

Application of Electron Beam Machining

Drill fine gas orifices, less than 0.002 mm, in space nuclear reactors,
turbine blades for supersonic aero-engines. To produce wire drawing dies,
light-ray orifices and spinnerets to produce synthetic fibres. Produce
metering holes in injector nozzles in diesel engines, etc.