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APPLICATIONS OF TENSILE STRUCTURES
Thesis · April 2016

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.29706.80329
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Glotman Simpson Structural Engineers Datta Meghe College of Engineering Navi- Mumbai India
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Aniket Patil Ganesh N Patil

Kuban State Medical University Government College of Engineering
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PROJECT REPORT ON
“APPLICATIONS OF TENSILE STRUCTURES”
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of
Bachelor of Engineering (Civil Engineering)
Submitted by
ANIKET TOLANI
VEDANG VADALKAR
ANIKET PATIL
GANESH PATIL
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

PROF P. R. BARBUDE
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINERING

DATTA MEGHE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, AIROLI
UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI
ACADEMIC YEAR 2015-16
i
Department of Civil Engineering
DattaMeghe College of Engineering
Airoli, Navi Mumbai
(Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Certificate
This is to certify that the following students
ANIKET TOLANI
VEDANG VADALKAR
ANIKET PATIL
GANESH PATIL
have satisfactorily completed their term work of project entitled “Applications of Tensile
Structures” undertaken at DattaMeghe College of Engineering, Airoli in partial fulfilment
of requirement of University of Mumbai for the students of B.E. Degree (CBSGS course)
in SEM-VIII of Civil Engineering during academic year 2015-2016.
(Prof P. R. Barbude) (Dr B. S. Asha) (Dr. S. D. Sawarkar)

Guide Head of Department Principal
ii
CERTIFICATE FROM GUIDE
This is to certify that the project report titled “Applications of Tensile
Structures” is the own work of
ANIKET TOLANI
VEDANG VADALKAR
ANIKET PATIL
GANESH PATIL
In partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Bachelor of

Engineering (Civil) in the department of Civil Engineering of DattaMeghe
College of Engineering under my supervision during the period of 2015-
2016.
Prof P. R. Barbude
Department of Civil Engineering
DattaMeghe College of Engineering
iii
Declaration
I declare that this written submission represents my ideas in my own words

and where others’ ideas or words have been included, I have adequately
cited and referenced the original sources. I also declare that I have
adhered to all principles of academic honesty and integrity and have not
misrepresented or fabricated or falsified any idea/data/fact/source in my
submission. The work is my own contribution and has not been submitted
by me to any university for the award of any diploma or degree.
Aniket Tolani Vedang Vadalkar
Aniket Patil Ganesh Patil
Date:
Place: Airoli, Navi Mumbai
iv
Project Approval
This synopsis entitled “Application of Tensile Structures” by following

students
Aniket Tolani
Vedang Vadalkar
Aniket Patil
Ganesh Patil
Are approved for the term work in partial fulfilment of requirement of

University of Mumbai for the student of B.E. Degree (CBSGS course) in
SEM-VIII of Civil Engineering during academic year 2015-2016.
Signature of Internal Examiner:
Signature of External Examiner:
Date:
Place:Airoli, Navi Mumbai.
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We wish to express our sincere gratitude to Mr. P. R. Barbude Sir, assistant professor at
Datta Meghe College of Engineering, Civil Engineering Department for providing us with
the opportunity to do our project in “TENSILE STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING”.
We sincerely thank Mr. Hemant Vadalkar, key person and Structural Engineer at Vadalkar
& Associates, for their guidance and encouragement in carrying out this project work.
We sincerely thank Mr. Vikas Parab, Partner, Tenso Designers and Mr. Rohan Raje,
Partner, Tenso Designer, for their guidance and encouragement to carry out this project
work.
We sincerely thank Mr. Atish G. T., Regional Manager, Mehler Texnologies and
Mr. Suresh H. Motwani, owner and key person at Saideep Enterprises for their guidance
and insight in the material aspect of our project.
We also thank Head of the Department, Civil Engineering, Dr. B. S. Asha for providing us
the oppurtunity to embark on this project.
vi
ABSTRACT
The idea behind Tensile structures has been around for as long as man has created
structures for shelter. The preliminary type of structure most commonly used by man was Tents.
As the name suggests, Tension fabric structures utilize fabric in complete tension, as a primary
building material. Every part of structure is loaded only in tension with no requirement to resist
bending or compression. Soap film model is the classic example of Tensile Structures.
Assembly of tensile membrane structures creates a unique structural system, indeterminate in
its behavior and nonlinear in its deflection patterns. Tensile structures are gaining popularity due
to their light weight, structural efficiency, serviceability, aesthetic appearance, installation and
dismantling feasibility, climate regulation effects and less maintenance expenditures. In order to
eliminate the compressive forces in these structures, they are pre-tensioned or pre-stressed
which means tensile stresses are to be built up in surface to the extent that they are stable even
after the application of external loads. The light weight nature of membrane is a cost effective
solution that requires less structural steel to support the roof compared to other conventional
building materials, enabling long span of column free spaces. In the present study the
applications of tensile structures are analyzed as compared to other space frame structures.
Computer aids like Staad.Pro, FormFinding etc. are used to study the various aspects of these
types of structures.
KEYWORDS: Tensile structures, Tents, Soap Film Model, light weight, pre-tensioned, space
frame structures, tensile stresses, column free spaces, Staad.Pro, FormFinding.
vii
CONTENTS:
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition 1
1.2 Types of Tensile Structures 2
2. MATERIALS AND THEIR TESTING METHODS
2.1 Definition 4
2.2 Classification 7
2.3 Testing 9
3. FORMFINDING
3.1 Form Finding 14
4. BOUNDARY SUPPORT AND THEIR TYPES 20
5. PRETENSIONING 23
6. DETAILING AND CONNECTIONS
6.1. Seams 24
6.2. Edges 26
6.3. Point Field Supports 28
6.4. Corners 29
6.5. Base Plates 32
7. STRUCTURAL ADVANTAGE OVER CONVENTIONAL SYSTEMS 33
8. LITERATURE
8.1 Literature review 37
8. 2 Research Work 38
9. IMPORTANT STEPS REGARDING DESIGN PROCEDURE 43
a
10. DESIGN STANDARDS
10.1 DESIGN LOADING CONDITIONS 45
10.2 DESIGN BASIS AND SAFETY CRITERIA 46
11. FABRICATION INSTALLATION AND MAINTAINENCE 48
12. DESIGN REPORTS OF HAJ HOUSE (MUMBAI)
12.1. DESIGN OF TENSILE ROOF CANOPY 58
12.2. DESIGN OF SPACE FRAME 61
13. DESIGN REPORTS OF CIDCO STADIUM (NASHIK)
13.1. DESIGN OF AN ARCH TRUSS 65
13.2. DESIGN OF SPACE TRUSS 66
13.3. DESIGN OF TENSILE ROOF COVERING 68
14. SUMMARY
14.1. CASE 1 – HAJ HOUSE TENSILE CANOPY 70
14.2. CASE 2 – CIDCO STADIUM ROOF COVERING 72
15. CONCLUSION 74
16. REFERENCES 76
b
LIST OF FIGURES:
1. Types of cables – Tensile structures, Prof. Schierle. 2
2. Types of cables – Tensile structures, Prof. Schierle. 2
3. Thane railway station – Internet. 2
4. Haj House – Projects, Tenso Designers. 2
5. Japan-www.detail-online.com 3
6. Curvatures - geolmag.geoscienceworld.org 3
7. Classification of membranes based on their threading
-Internet 4
8. Stress-Strain relation and Creep Factor graphs
-Internet 4
9. Single Lap and Panama Lap - European Design Guide for Tensile
Surface Structures, Brian Forster MarijkeMollaert. Tensinet. 5
10. Melt Spinning Process -European Design Guide for Tensile Surface
Structures, Brian Forster MarijkeMollaert. Tensinet. 5
11. Strength Dependence -European Design Guide for Tensile Surface
12. Tear Propogation Test -European Design Guide for Tensile Surface
13. Tear Strength -European Design Guide for Tensile Surface Structures,
Brian Forster MarijkeMollaert. Tensinet. 12
14. Prestress Alignment -European Design Guide for Tensile Surface
c
15. Soap Film Models -European Design Guide for Tensile Surface Structures,
16. Schematic Form Finding Diagrams -European Design Guide for
Tensile Surface Structures, Brian Forster MarijkeMollaert. Tensinet. 17
17. Fabric Cutting -European Design Guide for Tensile Surface Structures,
18. Stitched Seam -European Design Guide for Tensile Surface Structures,
19. Welded Seam - European Design Guide for Tensile Surface Structures,
20. Laced Seam- European Design Guide for Tensile Surface Structures,
21. Rigid and Flexible Fabric Connections - European Design Guide for
22. Rigid Connections – Internet 27
23. Linear Support- European Design Guide for Tensile Surface Structures,
24. Point Filled Support- European Design Guide for Tensile Surface Structures,
25. Point Filled Support- European Design Guide for Tensile Surface Structures,
26. Corner plate set apart from the fabric And Corner plate clamped to fabric
European Design Guide for Tensile Surface Structures, Brian Forster
MarijkeMollaert. Tensinet. 30
27. Corner plate connected with keder profile to fabric- European Design Guide
for Tensile Surface Structures, Brian Forster MarijkeMollaert. Tensinet. 31
d
28. Corner plate clamped to fabric- European Design Guide for Tensile
Surface Structures, Brian Forster MarijkeMollaert. Tensinet. 31
29. Corner plate, connection with belts - European Design Guide for
30. Base Plates - European Design Guide for Tensile Surface Structures,
31. Cable Base Plates - European Design Guide for Tensile Surface Structures,
32. Example of Pneumatic Dome – Internet 33
33. The O2 Statdium – Internet 34
34. Example of Tensile Structure – Internet 35
35. Example of an internal mast held Tensile Structure - Internet 36
36. Flowchart detailing the analysis process of tensile structures 44
37. Scaled model of a tensile project - Internet 45
38. CNC Cutter – Internet 49
39. Welding Process using machinery – Internet 50
40. Sewing Process using machinery – Internet 50
41. Fabric Rolls –Internet 51
42. Installation of Fabric – Internet 52
43. Installation of Fabric – Internet 52
44. Cleaning of Fabric – Internet 53
45. Replacement of Fabric – Internet 54
46. Fabric Properties Pamphlet Photo – Melhar Enterprise 55
47. STAADtm model of the skeleton for the Tensile Structure 57
48. Formfindertm model of the Tensile Membrane and its stress distribution 58
49. STAADtm model of the Space Frame Structure 61
e
50. 2 Dimensional Tubular Truss STAAD model 65
51. Single Panel of the 3 Dimensional Tubular Truss STAAD model 66
52. Formfinder model for the stadium roofing Tensile Structure 68
53. Graph representing cost aspect for Haj House case study 70
54. Graph representing weight aspect for Haj House case study 71
55. Graph representing amount of steel required for Haj House case study 71
56. Graph representing cost aspect for CIDCO Stadium case study 72
57. Graph representing weight aspect for CIDCO Stadium case study 73
58. Graph representing amount of steel required for CIDCO Stadium case study 73
f
1. INTRODUCTION
This introductory chapter gives a quick insight of the proposed project. General idea
about the tensile structures has been presented in this chapter including definitions and types.
The main idea of project has also been presented.
1.1 DEFINITION:
Structural systems maybe classified into three basic categories:

- Skeletal Structures
- Surface Structures
- Solid Structures
Skeletal structures are those which can be idealized by series of straight or curved lines.
The common examples of skeletal structures are roof truss, lattice girders and building frames.
These types of structures are generally analyzed by elementary method of structural
mechanics.
Surface structures are those which can be idealized to plane or curved surfaces. The
common examples of these structures are Membrane structures, shells, pressure vessels etc.
These types of structures require non-linear analysis for their complete study.
Solid Structures are those which can neither be classified as skeletal nor surface
structures. These are rarely used as general building component.
The present study is confined to Tensile Membrane Structures which comes under
Surface Structures. Tensile structures undergo only tension with no need of compression and
bending. This property allows restricting the weight of structure to minimum and also provides
virtually unlimited designs and distinctive elegant forms.
1.2 TYPES OF TENSILE STRUCTURES:
Tensile structures can be categorized on basis of various aspects. The most commonly
used classifications are listed below.
Types of Tensile structures (Based on load carrying elements)
Cable Suspended Membrane Structures Tensegritic Structures

(Cables are principle (Membrane Forces carry (Continuous Tension Members,
Load carrying elements) loads with no bending) Discontinuous compression members)
Types of Tensile structures (Based on Geometric Shape)
Anticlastic Surfaces / Saddle Shape. Synclastic Surfaces/ Inflated Shape.Monoclastic Surfaces

(Negative Gaussian Curvature) (Positive Gaussian Curvature) (Zero Gaussian Curvature)
1
1.2.1 Types of tensile structures based on load carrying elements:
i. Cable Suspended Structures:

To span railroad trucks underneath, the truss roof is suspended by stay cables from concrete
pylons. In this optimal span/sag ratio is 10. Small sag creates large stresses. Large sag creates
small stresses but also introduces the need of tall support systems. Stabilizing of cable is required
to resist wind uplifts. But this solution may increase seismic load considerations.
FIGURE -1 FIGURE-2
ii. Membrane structures:
Membrane structures are generally those structures which can purely take tension. Due to their
shape and material necessity, the structures can span long distances. Membranes are thin,
flexible, surfaces that carry loadsprimarily through thedevelopment of tensile stresses. They may
be suspended or stretched between posts or supported by air pressure. Tension implies an
optimal use of the material, since the whole section is uniformly stressed. Moreover there is no
buckling problem, like it is the case for compression. The form finding of fabric structures tries to
take full advantage of the tensile strength of the material, while preventing negative stresses to
occur. To withstand upward and downward loads, a cable has to be stabilized and pretensioned:
compression in this case means a reduction of the initial pretension.
Thane railway station, Haj House, Mumbai

Maharashtra. Maharashtra.
FIGURE-3 FIGURE-4
2
iii. Tensegritic Structures:
A tensegritic structure is a lightweight space
structure consisting of compression members
surrounded by a network of tension members. They
can be easily dismantled and therefore provide
innovative possibilities for reusable and modular
structures. Tensegrities can adapt their shape by
changing their self-stress, and when equipped with
sensors and actuators, they can adapt to changing
environments. FIGURE-5
1.2.2 Types of Tensile Structures based on Geometric Shape:

A classic way of finding shape of membrane structure is soap film model. Soap bubbles
stretch between supports and final shape is one having the less potential energy, minimizing the
tension in system so that the tension stress is equal at every point of bubble and minimum
surface area is found. The soap film can be seen as optimal membrane when it comes to
geometry. It is a good material representing a large structure in small scale models, something
that is otherwise difficult to do with different kinds of textiles since they have a different
thickness and weight.
i. Anticlastic Surfaces/Saddle Curvatures:

An anticlastic form is a mono-shell in which axial and radial
curves are oriented in oppositedirections.Anticlastic surfaces have
inverse curvatures which are defined by minimum of four points or
at least one out of plane that is a simple parabolic surface in space
can be considered as an anticlastic surface. These surfaces have
negative Gaussian curvature. The main advantages of using such
type of surfaces are they cannot hold water and drain it as soon as
water comes on them, this is the one of the chief reasons why rain
loads are not considered while designing these surface structures.
ii. Synclastic Surfaces/Inflated Shapes:

A synclastic form is a mono-shell whose axial and radial
curves are oriented in the same direction, either concave or
convex.A good way to know whether a form is synclastic is to
remember that a synclast can be positioned so that it can hold
water. Synclastic show primary structure at every point on their
surface. The forces in membranes are in direct proportion to the
membrane curvatures with large radii giving larger tensions.
Hydrostatically loaded structures are mostly load distributing system
in nature. This characteristic can be seen in water drop as well as in
living cells. Hydrostatic pressure increase with height and creates
shape with continuously changing radii.
iii. Monoclastic Surfaces :

Monoclastic surfaces are with zero Gaussian curvatures.
There is no distinguishing as axial and radial curves all fibers are
inclined similarly. They have advantages and disadvantages of both
the Anticlastic and Synclasticsurfaces.A summation of anticlastic
and synclastic may result into monoclastic surfaces. FIGURE - 6
3
2. MATERIALS AND THEIR TESTING METHODS
2.1 DEFINITION:
The materials used for architectural membranes generally consist of a woven fabric
coated with a polymeric resin. The strength of coated fabrics are mainly determined by the
strength of their constitutive yarns. Weft-inserted fabrics, laminated fabrics and foils are variants
of the general concept.
When used externally uncoated fabrics have short service lives. Coating a fabric gives the
following benefits:
a) Protecting the yarns against different sources of damage (UV, abrasion, atmosphere)
b) Proofing the membrane against rainwater and atmospheric moisture
c) Stabilizing what might otherwise be an unstable fabric geometry
d) Providing material to permit heat-sealed seams
FIGURE - 7
4
FIGURE - 8
2.1.1 POLYESTER YARNS
Polyester yarns are produce by “melt spinning” a polymer at

265 °C through a spinneret having a given number of holes defining
the number of individual filaments. During the cooling step,
crystallization and orientation of macromolecular chains occur. The
drawing of the yarn in one or two steps gives an additional
orientation to the macromolecules. In turn this leads to higher
values of elastic modulus and tenacity.
High tenacity polyester yarn is characterized by a tensile
strength of, at least, 0.7N/tex. The yarn itself is composed of 200
filaments/yarn. The tenacity, being that high, depends on the degree of
crystallization of the yarn and the orientation of the crystalline domain.
FIGURE 9
FIGURE-10
5
2.1.2BASE FABRIC:
Base fabrics are generally woven ones obtained by inserting weft yarns between two
layers of warp yarns at 90° to the warp yarns, following a construction designed by the number
of yarns per cm and a weave pattern. The main weave patterns used in membrane are plain
weave or a 2-2 basket weave
Woven fabrics are characterized by:
a) Surface weight in g/m2
b) Number of yarns per cm in weft (or fill) and in warp
c) Weave pattern
d) Crimp of the yarns in weft and warp
e) Cover factor (or porosity)
f) Mechanical and physical properties.
The weight of a fabric may be changed by increasing the number or the linear density of
the yarns. Depending on the conditions of tension during weaving on a given loom, the crimp of
the yarns can change.
2.1.3 FINISHING:
Generally after weaving a special finish is applied to the fabrics. The purpose of this very
thin layer is to increase the chemical and physical compatibilities between the fabric and its first
coating. A better compatibility means firstly, a good wettability of the fibers by the liquid resin at
the processing stage, and secondly, after wetting a good physical and chemical adhesion
between fiber and resin.
Protection of the fabric is generally achieved by applying a resin coating in paste form.
Coatings have specific chemical formulations which make the basic resin suitable for processing
as well as increasing the levels of performance of particular characteristics such as fire
retardance, fungal resistance, and color pigmentation. The coating process is specific to each
chemical resin used. A coating is characterized by its:
a) Weight in g/m2
b) Thickness measured as either the total thickness of the finished product or as the distance
between the top of the fabric’s yarn and the outer surface of the coating.
2.1.4PVC COATING:
The PVC formulation is a flame-retardant type, as it has to comply with several strict
flammability regulations such as the French M2, the German B1 or the US NFPA. These have a
distinct impact on the composition of the plasticized PVC. For the direct coating process, the
PVCs used are “paste” PVCs made of either suspension PVC or emulsion types, and containing
significant quantities of emulgators. The choice of those polymers in the production process of
the coated fabric is critical in the way that the type and concentration of the emulgators have an
impact on the processing (rheology), thermal properties and cleaning and surface aspects.
6
2.2 CLASSIFICATION:
A number of manufacturers produce a range of different strength grades for both
PVC/PES and PTFE/glass materials. For PVC coated polyester fabrics, the working group for
architecture at Messe Frankfurt1 and a French design guide3 have each proposed a
classification of five distinct types following the main characteristics. The main parameters
classifying the materials are the tensile strength and the composition of the coated fabrics.
FABRIC ARCHITECTURE
COATED FIBER OPEN MESH FOILS

Coated fabrics present a For applications which Architectural foils are
symmetrical structure of do not require weather widely used for
yarns arranged in two main tightness, the use of pneumatic
orthogonal directions: warp open mesh fabrics is application thanks to
and fill. The yarns consist of recently becoming quite their level of air
threads parallel or twisted popular. The weaving tightness, however,
together and can be made of pattern can be designed the reduced
several materials. While the in order to achieve the mechanical
structural function is mainly required level of solar properties limit their
provided by the yarns, the protection and the design use for large
protection from chemical and can take advantage of cushions and single
biological influences, fire- the reduced wind loads skin envelopes. In
retardant behaviour, weld and of the substantial recent projects, this
ability, waterproof qualities absence of ponding and limit has been
and UV ray resistance wrinkles due to the partially addressed
depend on the coating layer. permeable structure. by adding reinforcing
steel cables as a
support in case of
heavy loads.
7
2.2.1FIBERS:
The term ‘technical fabric’ is used to indicate the wide class of fabrics in which the
technical aspects are more significant than the aesthetic ones. The material of the fibers is one
of the most important factors which contribute to the final performance of the fabric, especially
from the mechanical point of view.
Polyester The most used fibre for architectural fabrics since the early 1960s due to
the reduced price, good mechanical performance and the expected
lifespan. The progressive degradation due to UV rays and the behavior in
case of fire can be easily improved with an adequate coating. The fibers are
quite flexible and are very common for temporary and seasonal structures.
Thanks to new technologies, coated fabrics, based on polyester fibers, are
now recyclable.
Polyethylene Polyethylene fabrics are generally woven from high-density polyethylene slit
tape and coated on both sides. It is generally used for low-budget
applications despite the shorter life span compared to polyester. Knitted
fabrics for shading applications are one of the recent and most promising
uses of high-density polyethylene in architecture. The fire behavior and the
resistance to UV rays can be improved through the use of specific
additives.
Fiberglass Glass fibers are generally used for permanent heavy duty applications due
to the high modulus of elasticity and the tensile strength, and because of its
intrinsic high resistance to fire and UV degradation it does not require
additional additives.
However, glass fibers are quite brittle and can crack easily and for this
reason the panels of fabric should be folded and handled with care avoiding
repeated flexing and low radius of curvature.
Expanded Architectural fabrics based on Expanded PTFE are relatively new and
PTFE commonly used for seasonal and deployable structures due to the high
translucency, strength, flexibility, long life-span, high chemical resistance
and very good soiling behaviour. Due to the high costs this material is
generally used for specific projects which require, and highlight, its unique
luminosity.
Nylon Nylon fibers are generally used for projects and products which require
lightweight and stretchable fabrics with relatively low mechanical properties.
Thus, they are commonly used for small temporary and deployable
structures both for indoor and outdoor applications.
Aramids These fibers are very popular for nautical applications due to the extremely
high modulus of elasticity and breaking strength. They are non-combustible
but need to be protected against UV light. In architecture, due to the relative
high price, their use is generally related to special applications which
require their unique mechanical performance.
Polyurethane Elastane, a polyurethane-polyurea copolymer, is exclusively used for indoor
applications which require exceptional elasticity. Highly appreciated for the
relatively low price and the reduced risk of wrinkles, this type of fabric is not
suitablefor wind and snow loads.
TABLE - 1
8
2.2.2COATING:
The final properties of a coated fabric, with the only exception of the mechanical
performance, are mainly related to the materials used for the top coatings. They are usually
placed on both sides of the fabric and can be combined with several additives in order to
achieve the requirements in terms of weather and UV resistance, chemical and biological
attacks, fire behavior and color stability. Therefore, the quality of the coating is fundamental for
the service life of the material.
i. PVC
ii. Fluoropolymer Coating
iii. Silicone
iv. Polyurethane and Polyethylene
v. Synthetic Rubbers
vi. Low E Coating
2.3TESTING
i. BIAXIAL TEST TO DETERMINE THE SHEAR STIFFNESS:
A sample is cut, in which the warp or the weft is orientated at, for example, 45 degrees
to the boundary. The tensions are n11 in the direction along one boundary and n22 in the
direction perpendicular to this. This gives stresses in warp and weft of:
n11 = E1111x11 + E1122x 22 n22 = E1122x 11 + E2222x22
Thus there are shear stresses in the coordinate system of the main anisotropic direction
if the stresses parallel with the boundaries are not the same. The corresponding shear
deformations must also be measured. To do this the deformations parallel with the warp
direction are first measured and then those parallel with the weft direction and those at 45
degrees to the warp and weft. Thus the components of the strain tensor
ii. STRENGTH:
The strength of the coated fabric is

exclusively determined by the strength of the yarns.
What is of prime importance here is not the strength
of an individual yarn but that of a unit width of the
fabric.However the strength of the coated fabric is
less than that of the individual yarn strength
multiplied by the number of yarns per unit width.
The explanation for this is that each yarn is
deflected at each crossover point by a force applied
to it by the yarn crossing it.
FIGURE-11
9
Such deflection reduces the yarn’s strength, since in
addition to the axial force a bending moment has also been
applied which combined together reduce the strength of the
yarns in both directions. This effect does not exist with the weft-
inserted fabrics.
iii. BIAXIAL STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOUR IN A

SHORT-TERM TEST
The next item of interest is how the material stretches

when it is loaded. This property is described by:
a) stiffness in the warp direction

b) stiffness in the weft direction
c) transverse extension
d) shear stiffness
iv. TEAR PROPOGATION: FIGURE-12
The method forming the basis of most European

“norms” and uses a trapezium shaped sample containing an initial slit running out the shorter of
the two free edges.
The force which originally passed directly through this zone before the tear existed, has now
been “led around the tear”, and the deformations that have occurred for this purpose are clearly
visible. This is in contrast with the behaviour of the trapezoidal sample where the force could not
be “led around the tear”. Therefore the trapezoidal sample only measures how individual
threads each take up force at the root of the tear as a result of their deformation.
v. LONG TERM BEHAVIOUR, RESIDUAL STRENGTHS AND BEHAVIOUR UNDER

TEMPERATURE CHANGES:
It is clear that the long term properties of the fabric are determined by the long term
behaviour of the yarns and their geometry within the fabric. The exception to this is a starting
phase in which the contact geometry between warp and weft is established. For the long-term
behaviour it is necessary to take note that creep, relaxation, and temperature play a significant
role.
10
vi. RELAXATION BEHAVIOUR:
With certain boundary conditions it may not be the creep values but the relaxation values
which are decisive for long-term behaviour.
TESTING METHODS:
1. Short-term behavior
A. Uniaxial Strength Test.
In general all strength investigations are carried out as uniaxial strip tests. It is generally
understood that with a biaxial load the strength will be lower than that with a uniaxial load.
Biaxial strength is very difficult to measure. In the biaxial testing rig familiar to the authors it is
the strength of the sample and not that of the material which is determined since the failure
always starts from an edge. For individual breaking test results it is necessary to give:
a) The type of break

b) Width of strip
c) Breaking stress
d) Average value
e) Standard deviation
f) Sample removal plan
The uniaxial strip test should be carried out at different temperatures: -20°C, 23°C and 70°C:
I. At 23°C
Test type: Initial approval, self-monitoring, external monitoring
Duty to provide evidence: Coating firm
Test quantity: At least 5 in each direction warp and weft
Initial test: 20 warps and 20 wefts at 23°C
Self-monitoring: 10 warps, 10 wefts per batch
External monitoring: Visit twice per annum, removal of a 2m wide piece at a random the
alteration that
the width of the sample must be 100mm. Interface, 10 warp tests, 10 weft tests.
II. 70°C
Test type: Initial approval, self-monitoring, external monitoring
Test quantity: At least 5 in each direction warp and weft
Initial approval: 20 warp samples, 20 weft samples
Self-monitoring: 5 warp samples, 5 weft samples per batch
External monitoring: 5 warp samples, 5 weft samples,
All other things being equal, the above prescription applies here, with the additional requirement
that the samples must be brought up to the testing temperature for at least one hour before
testing and that the clamps must also be at the sample temperature if at all possible.
11
III. -20°C
Here again, all other things being equal, the above applies. The test does not have to be carried
out if the application is not expected to reach these temperatures.
Test type: Initial approval

Test quantity: 20 warp samples, 20 weft samples
B. THE BI-AXIAL STRENGTH
In addition to the strip tests two-dimensional bursting tests should be carried out for the initial
approval. The difficulties in carrying out bursting tests are due to the fact that the fabrics are
anisotropic materials. This means that the deformation shape only approximates to a calotte
shell and the determination of the failure load has many elements of uncertainty.
The problem must however be investigated further.
Test type: Initial approval
Test quantity: To be established according to the spread of the tests but at
least three.
2. The tear strength

The tear-type damage must be defined properly. What is needed is the load at which the tear
will be subject to unstable propagation so that the membrane finally fails. The governing theory
here is that of fracture mechanics in which the stress concentration factor is defined as the
decisive variable. This material variable is defined on the basis of the linear theory of elasticity
and it can be applied to anisotropic materials without problems. It can be shown that this theory
is also valid as a good approximation for coated fabrics.
FIGURE-13
12
I. Uniaxial tear growth test (Trapezoidal test)
Test type: Initial approval, external monitoring

Test quantity: At least 5 in warp and 5 in weft
Initial approval: 10 warp samples, 10 weft samples
External monitoring: 5 warp samples, 5 weft samples
In the textile industry the trapezoidal test has become well established since it is easy to carry
out and is subject to DIN standard no. 53363. This test can however at the very best be used as
a comparison test between different fabrics. No conclusion about actual tear strength can be
drawn from this test.rm strength behaviour
– Strength loss following loading

The long-term strength behaviour test is carried out in exactly the same way as for the
short-term strength test in uniaxial strip tests parallel with the yarns. The following load
steps should be set:
The short-time tensile strength at 23°C at 10%,20%,50%,90% .
Test series should be done to obtain a sensitive reduction factor for long-term-loading.
After 1000hours the residual strength is established.
Test: After uniaxial loading at 23°C over1000hours uniaxial strength according to
Test type: Initial test
Test quantity: At least three samples for each load in the warp direction and three in the weft
direction
13
3.FORMFINDING
Designers of fabric structures concern themselves with three primary structural factors
1. Choice of surface shape
2. Levels of pre-stress
3. Surface deformability
Furthermore the geometry of a membrane’s surface is not defined by imposing on it a

mathematically based surface of revolution as in the case of shells, rather it needs to be defined
by its “internal equilibrium of pre-stress within a predetermined boundary system of support.
This type of approach in defining surface shape permits the designer to step beyond the
constraints of the equi-stressed soap film and so produce surfaces having less restrictive ratios
of height and ring size while having smoothly changing pre-stress fields.Thus surface shape can
be the outcome of not just the choice of boundary conditions but also the choice of pre-stress
ratios within those boundaries. Choice of boundary conditions is primary to the resulting surface
shape since choice of a pre-stress ratio is not, in itself, a primary generator of shape, simply a
modifier of it.Why a non-linear approach is preferred during design of membrane structures.
Simply put, the basic membrane shape is governed by the end boundary conditions, such as
supports and other structural members, but the introduction of pre-stress in the membrane
material helps in acquiring a shape more desirable and consenting with the economical and
physical constraints.
3.1 FormFinding:
The initial shape of the membrane is a function of stress ratio in warp and weft direction
and boundary conditions (external loads, support) aren’t taken into consideration. The
membrane configuration in the three dimensional space cannot be imposed without a prior
design consideration and hence the final shape is an articulate membrane configuration
obtained by accurate calibration of various parameters and the combination of basic shapes.
Form finding can be defined in the following ways:
1. Finding the optimal shape of a tension membrane.

2. Finding the shape of the tension membrane that is in static equilibrium but doesn’t have a
constant surface stress
3. Finding the shape which approximates the sate if full static equilibrium.
The choice of the initial boundary conditions for an anticlastic surface can often be
guided by the use of the relationship T= p x R where T is membrane tension, p is pressure
applied normal to the surface, and R is radius of curvature of the surface. This relationship has
particular relevance to the ‘saddle’ and ‘hypar’ shapes. Thus by knowing what the applied
pressures are likely to be as well as what the membrane tensions should be limited to, then the
radius/radii or curvature can easily be found. This can then be fed back into the initial
assumptions made about the geometry of the boundary conditions.
Where geometric constraints are placed upon a design – such as to require the use of
flatter and therefore larger radii of curvature – then larger values of pre-stress will be requiredto
control the size of the membrane’s deflections.
14
For many structures the same quantity of prestress is applied to both directions of the
textile’s weave. However in cases where the magnitude of the inward and outward appliedloads
are markedly different to one another then it can be economically advantageous todetermine
themembrane’s shape such that a smaller (tighter) radius of curvature is subjected to the
higherexternal pressure and vice-versa a larger (flatter) radius of curvature carries the lower
external pressure. In this way the resulting maximum membrane tensions willbe of a similar
size.
FACTORS AFFECTING MODELING:
Their modeling studies – employing minimum surface soap films, stretch fabric and accurate
wire models – established the principles published in the various texts. The principal
characteristics of prestressed coated fabric membranes that govern the methods of form finding,
analysis and patterning are:
1. They have very low surface stiffness and the main load carrying directions are dictated
by the orthogonal directions of the fabric weave.
2. Typically the arrangement of fabric panels or “patterning” will be such that longer term
loads such as snow may predominantly be carried by the warp yarns aligned with the
“hanging” direction of the surface, and with shorter term dynamic wind loads (which
predominantly cause suction on the surfaces) being carried by the weft yarns aligned in
the “arching” direction.
3. Prestressing of the surface adds significantly to its stiffness. The work done by applied
loads causing deformation is balanced by the change in strain energy within the surface
and this is both a function of the increasing strains in the load carrying direction as well
as the decreasing strains in the opposing/orthogonal weave direction. Prestress,
however, may not affect maximum forces in components or foundations since much of
the prestress may be dissipated under full design loadings. Normally, however, a more
important contribution to surface stiffness is curvature, and increasing the level of
prestress may have the disadvantage of making the “stressing out” process during
erection more difficult
4. In spite of their lightweight the natural frequencies of tension structures are low
compared with those of conventional structures of similar span. This is principally due to
of their low stiffness and the added mass effects of the surrounding/attached air.
5. The main determinant of the overall structural form of tensile structures will be the choice
of boundary support systems including internal support elements such as masts and
ridge cables. In addition the surface shapes of lightweight anticlastic tension structures
are, within a given set of boundaries, dependent on the prestress ratios in the main
curvature (and fabric yarn) directions.Considering them only during subsequent load
analyses. The initial prestress shape of the entire system is dependent only on prestress
ratios in all elements (including mast compressions) rather than prestress magnitudes;
the level of prestress can be adjusted during load analysis checks without having to
repeat form finding analyses.
15
6. The component elements may change radically in shape during this process but the
stresses within them remain constant. Since the stresses will correspond with the main
orthogonal yarn directions and the shear stress for form finding are zero, the yarn
directions will be principal stress directions.
1. FORM FINDING
In the long term prestress state there will be creep of the fabric and some relaxation of the
prestress. Also if the fabric is stressed in a reasonably uniform state initially there will be less
deformation of the form due to change in the stress ratios and perhaps in consequence less
likelihood of local wrinkling. Detectable deformation can be noticed if there is a large difference
in the warp and weft stresses in the initial state which subsequently relax to become more
uniform. It would seem reasonable to aim to provide uniform stress surfaces within the
boundaries chosen by architectural constraints – thus the surface so formed would be a minimal
surface, akin to a soap-film model. There may also be sound engineering reasons for aiming at
a uniform or reasonably uniform state of stress.
FIGURE-14
16
1.1 METHODS OF FORM FINDING:
1.1.1 PHYSICAL MODELING:
Before the advent of affordable powerful computers, the design of stressed membrane
surface structures had to be carried out using physical models (except in rare cases with
analytic solutions). However the drawback with this method was that only limited accuracy
could be obtained although a great advantage was often the development of a better
intuitive understanding by the designer. Two physical modeling methods of form finding can
be distinguished. In the first, a soap-film surface is created between rigid wires or thread
supports.
FIGURE - 15
FIGURE - 16
17
One of the primary limitations of soap film modeling lies in the fact that the films, being
necessarily constant stress surfaces, do not always provide optimum solutions to many practical
design situations obtained. If models are constructed using high elasticity membranes or fabrics,
depending on the nature of the particular project, and the materials used, a variety of techniques
can be applied to achieve specific ends.
1.1.2 NUMERICAL METHODS FOR FORM FINDING AND ANALYSIS
The fundamental basis of most computational systems used for the design of surface
structures is some form of equilibrium modeling. In such systems the structure is discretised to
form a finite element mesh with fixed topology but, with the exception of the fixed points, only
approximate nodal coordinates. Depending on the particular finite element type used, elemental
internal forces can be determined and thence summed at the nodes. Once any external loads
have been applied, the residual out-of-balance nodal forces may be determined. Equilibrant
nodal coordinate values can then be approached through a directed perturbation of the mesh
based on these residual forces. One of the main advantages of using such a computational
approach to form finding is that the subsequent prediction of member forces under both
prestress and applied load is facilitated. The most widely reviewed and applied methods which
can be used for both the form finding and fully non-linear analysis of tensile structures are:
a. The Force-Density Method
b. Non-linear Finite Element Methods
c. Dynamic Relaxation
All methods of analysis for tensile structures must fully account for the geometrical non-linear
effects associated with significant or gross deformations, including the sag in guy cables due to
self weight. Material non-linear effects such as on/off wrinkling of membranes and slackening of
cables must also be fully incorporated; and appropriate bi-axial stress/strain relations for the
fabric response must be used which are based on tests, or records of tests on similar grades
and types of material.
A procedure which has been applied to various built PVC coated polyester fabric structures is
as follows:
a) Having recorded the “virgin state gauge” lengths for strain measurements in the weave
directions, the biaxial sample is stressed to its prestress levels (at a temperature of 22 °C) and
the stresses are then cycled alternately in the warp and weft directions from their prestress
levels.
b) The stress levels are reset to 11 temperature of 44 °C. The sample is then relaxed back to
the prestress level and held for 4 hours at 22 °C. The strains recorded at the end of this time are
used as the stretch compensation values for the fabrication patterning process.
c) At a temperature of 22 °C, and with the weft strain held constant at the prestress value (from
stage 2), the warp stress is increased to (typically) half of the maximum design stress and the
increment of warp strains from the prestress state and the new weft stress are recorded
(typically after 1 hour). Using these records of warp and weft stresses and strains (with zero
increment in weft strain from the prestress state) EAx and EAc can be obtained.
18
d) At a temperature of 22 °C and with warp strain held constant at the prestress value (i.e. held
at zero increment) the weft stress is increased to half its maximum design value and the
increment of weft strain and the new warp stress are recorded.
e) The value for EAc can be taken as the average from (c) and (d), and a check on the
properties can be made by increasing both the warp and weft stress simultaneously from their
prestress state and recording the corresponding increments of strain. The above procedures are
merely typical of what might be applied, and clearly the temperatures and maximum stresses.
1.2 FABRIC PATTERNING:
The coated textiles used for membrane structure projects are unable to withstand prolonged
shear loading. Consequently, cloth layout should be arranged such that the principal membrane
stresses approximately coincide with the fabric weave directions. In addition, the principal
requirement for the patterning of fabric panels, already referred to in section 8.1, is that panel
centre and seam-lines should follow geodesic paths over the doubly curved membrane surface.
When laid flat this implies that the panel’s centre-line will be a straight warp line, but its edges
will be curved (inwards for an anticlastic surface); the yarns along the seams will thus overlap at
an angle (of up to 6° if we take the example in the final note of section 8.1). But to wrap onto a
spatial surface form the weave of the initially flat panels must shear, and even if shear stiffness
is very low the fact that the weave is locked at the welded seam may cause slight wrinkling.
Prestress must be sufficient to avoid this effect (or panel widths reduced in areas of high
curvature).
Stretch compensations have been referred to in the previous section. They will not usually be
constant along a panel, but will vary depending on the prestress ratios and levels in warp and
weft. Thus they will typically be graded (linearly) along the panel. However, the ends of the
panel will often be bounded by more rigid elements such as a boundary cable or clamping ring.
In this case such ends must be de-compensated (fully in the case of a rigid boundary) so that
their lengths match the more rigid elements in the built state. This de-compensation is usually
graded linearly over a short length so that after 1m into the panel the full compensations are
applied. A note on terminology is appropriate: the idea of a linear grading of compensation
throughout an entire panel with superimposed local de-compensations at its ends can be
thought of solely as different and graded compensations in up to three regions of the panel-
locally at each end and in the main body of the fabric panel.
19
4. BOUNDRY SUPPORT AND THEIR TYPES:
The design of a membrane’s supporting structure should always clearly express the
lightness of the membrane and its counterbalancing system of, for instance, struts, tie-backs
and the associated tensioning devices. There are two distinct ways of forming the supporting
structure for tensioned membranes:
i. Curvilinear reinforcements that span between points of support, and whose flexibility allows
them to conform perfectly to the form of the prestressed membrane.
ii. Rigid structures that form a continuous boundary, curved or polygonally arranged from
straight or curved stiff elements.
1. SOFT MEMBRANE EDGE REINFORCEMENTS:
Soft linear edge reinforcements, such as

textile belts or steel cables, can only carry
axial tension forces. They need to be arranged
within a membrane’s surface to follow
approximately a curve of radius r (m). The
ideal and most natural membrane edge
solution is a continuous reinforcement made of
the same textile fibre as the fabric itself,
creating a pure textile structure where the
tensioned surface and its edge reinforcement
behave in an elastically compatible way. This
is advantageous when a tensile structure
undergoes large deformations under external
loads. Sewing high tensile woven belts onto
fabric edges can produce a technically
homogeneous membrane structure.
FIGURE - 17
2. SOFT RIDGES, VALLEYS AND LOOPS:
Large membrane roofs having a flat perimeter edge can be created using an
alternating system of ridge and valley cables (or belts) supported internally. These soft linear
reinforcements can also be considered as edges between adjoining pairs of membrane
panels, and like peripheral edges these internal reinforcements can be shaped with a
continuously changing curvature. For membrane structures that are generated as tension
equilibrium forms, the curvature radii are changing continuously according to the change of
to the change of angles between adjacent membrane panels. Tensioned linear membrane
supports are connected between points that are usually arranged on different levels relative
to the ground. Ridge cables connect to internal high points whereas valley cables connect to
internal low points of membrane structures. The loop is a special case for a soft internal low
or high point support. It is a curvilinear edge reinforcement in the shape of a “tear-drop” with
its free ends connected to the same support point. Several loops can be combined into
“rosettes” for internal supports.
20
3. STIFF MEMBRANE EDGES:
This type of edge provides a great freedom in layout since their form and dimension
can be continuously adjusted to provide sufficient strength and stiffness to absorb the forces
coming from the membrane. The most efficient solution for the stiff membrane edge is the
circular ring that collects a uniform tension from the perimeter of the membrane generating
within itself an axial compression. Other efficient solutions can be made using inclined arch
segments that push in opposition to the membrane’s tension and thus direct compression
forces to foundation points on the ground. Modular membrane structures can be mounted
upon space frames to cover large areas.
4. STIFF LINEAR SUPPORTS – ARCHES AND FRAMES
The compressed arch is a minimal configuration for linear rigid membrane supports.
Technically and aesthetically it provides an efficient solution to counterbalance the
membrane’s tension. In relation to the overall membrane shape the arches can be arranged
to lie in planes where the net lateral force normal to their planes is minimized or eliminated.
It can be possible for the arches to be stabilized laterally by the membrane and their size
reduced accordingly.
5. CABLES:
Flexible cables and ropes are used as soft linear membrane edges, as linear internal
membrane reinforcements, anchor cables and for the aerial support of single points. The
cable fittings and their connection detail at membrane suspension points, mastheads or
anchor points, should allow adjustment for tolerances as well as allowing for movements of
the structure under external loading as well as during erection.
6. MAST:
Masts are compression elements supporting the corner and edge points around the
perimeter of a membrane structure, and supporting the internal membrane reinforcements at
their high points. Such points can also be suspended from externally arranged mast
structures so as to keep the entire covered floor area free. There are 4 types of mast,
namely
 Boundary Mast:- these support the edge and corner points. Their minimal
configuration is the bisector position between the resultant direction of the edge
cable forces and anchor cable forces. The mast inclination determines the mast
footing position.
 Internal Mast:- These are generally pinned at their bottom to a mast footing plate and
at their top to the reinforcements that collect the membrane forces. Internal masts
are generally kept in balance by the membrane structure itself and their optimum
positions are determined by the amount and the direction of the forces that are
acting. The masts are best arranged in the resultant direction of the prestress forces
delivered by the membrane. The mast position is vertical only for symmetrically
supported and arranged membrane roofs.
21
 Flying Mast:- is the one supported by a steel cable system and is a means of
reducing the number of structural supports at floor level.
 External Mast:- Where a design does not permit structural elements within the
covered area, tall masts can be located outside the enclosure giving support to the
membrane via inclined suspension cables.
22
5. PRETENSIONING
The level of pre-stress in a membrane surface affects all the elements
within the supporting structure (masts, frames, cables etc.). Pre-stress is an
inherent part of its structural behavior. The pre-stress levels are chosen as a result of the
“form finding” process, and have to be achieved and sustained during the erection and life of the
structure. Long term effects, such as creep of the membrane material may alter pre-
stress levels. Foundation settlement may also, though rarely, be an influence.
Generally the minimum required pre-stress of membrane surfaces depends on
the stiffness and strength of the material and the efficiency of the membrane surface (i.e.
curvature). Furthermore pre-stress levels lower than those given may lead to
an uneven or wrinkly appearance as not all fibers in the surface may be sufficiently stretched.
For PVC coated Polyester membrane structures pre-stress should not be less than 1.3%
of the average tensile strip capacity of the material in both the warp and weft directions. The
pre-stress values for PTFE coated glass fiber membrane structures tend to be higher as the
material is stiffer. For conical membrane shapes varying pre-stress levels are a necessity, as
the membrane shape would “neck-in” around the ring support.
An assembly of straight members resisting to tension or compression and jointed by pins

is considered. This assembly is in the particular case of total tensioning, it may be a cable
system. Stiffness of a specific state of the assembly is defined as a stability of this state from the
point of view of the minimum of the potential energy corresponding to it.
The internal strain energy of an arbitrary pin-bar assembly takes the following form:
Where, Ei, Ai, li, Pi, Di are the ith member elasticity modulus, cross-section area, initial length,
initialforce and elongation correspondingly.
In principle, analysis of the initial tangent stiffness matrix may be carried out numerically
for every particular case. However, in this work the properties of the initial tangent stiffness
matrix are investigated without referring to a specific structural topology, geometry or member
forces' distribution.
Therefore, the equilibrium state of any pin-bar assembly is stable under condition that
allmembers are tensioned. This result does not depend on specific structural topology,
geometry andmagnitudes of member forces and, consequently, explains why pre-tensioning
always stiffens cablesystems.
23
6.DETAILING AND CONNECTIONS:
Developing the design of a membrane structure is an iterative process in which both the
overall design and the detail are developed simultaneously. Detailing involves considering the
connections of different parts of the structure, while remaining aware of its general evolution.
A detail expresses both its function and how the whole structure works. Details must be
installable as well as able to function satisfactorily throughout their lifetime. Details generally are
vital to the overall stability of the structure although some may be of only minor importance.
Tensioned membrane structures are stable due to their doubly curved forms generated
by tensile force equilibrium. The detail elements must follow this principle and be able to respect
the load path geometry as external loading conditions change. Structural connection elements
invariably receive membranes and cables coming from different planes and angular orientation.
The design and execution of such elements need to be precise and in accordance with the
membrane geometry. Eccentricities must be avoided in order to guarantee the correct shape of
the total system. The formations of wrinkles and bad structural performance are some of the
consequences of detailing based upon the wrong geometryMembrane structure details should
be simple, flexible, of minimal configuration and expressing their own textile characteristics that
are so different to other building technologies. Details should also be in scale with the structure
and in character with the material used.
Strength, stability and durability are basic structural requirements for all building
systems. For membrane structures it is also the quality of the detailing that guarantees good
structural performance. Membrane technology is a “soft” technology and the details should be
designed to allow for the flexible behaviour of the fabric including its reinforcements. They
should be fluently integrated into the geometry of the system. Discontinuity of membrane forces
in the prestress-only condition, as well as in the deformed state, can easily cause material
fatigue and should be avoided. This is particularly true at rigidly held edges.
6.1SEAM CONNECTIONS:
Seams are the linear connection between adjoining panels of membrane. The most
commonly used is the simple welded overlap.
STITCHED SEAMS:
Stitched seams are produced by an industrial stitching machine with one or two needles.
There are many types of stitched seams, their particular use depending on the application.
Stitched seams are: mainly used for non-coated fabrics or non-weldable fabrics; not inherently
waterproof so need to be covered or impregnated; generally suitable for lower stresses; used
when loads are perpendicular to the plane of the membrane. This is often the case with air
inflated systems.
FIGURE - 18
24
WELDED SEAMS:
Welded seams are most commonly used because of their inherent water tightness and
the controlled production processes employed. Welds are generally made by the simple
overlapping of panel edges. The width of the overlap determines the width of the weld. The
welding process fuses together the coatings of the two overlapping pieces of material. This is an
important difference with stitched seams. Stitched seams have a mechanical connection
between the two cloths. The strength of a welded seam depends on the bonding of the coating
to the weave and the width of the seam. By changing the width of the seam, the strength of the
seams is changed.
FIGURE - 19
COMBINATION SEAMS:
Seams which use a combination of both stitching and welding can provide an extra level
of security. After stitching, a seam can be covered with an extra layer of fabric, to make it
watertight and protect the stitched thread from UV. This layer does not make the seam stronger,
but makes it safer. The strength of a welded seam is much lower at higher temperature due to
weakening of the coating. Also the combination seam provides useful resistance to forces
applied at 90° to the seam edge which could otherwise cause a “peeling” failure.
GLUED SEAMS:
Glued seams are not commonly used in membrane structures. Glueing is used in
making patch repairs to PVC coated membranes but is expensive and labour intensive.
Elastomer coated materials like Hypalon or Silicone coated fabrics are connected by glueing or
stitching.
LACED SEAMS:
Lacings are used to connect two parts of

fabric in an easy and demountable way. The lacing
consists of a piece of rope connected to one part of
the fabric and by means of particular ways of lacing
connections can be made. There are several
methods most of which originate from the traditional
travelling circus tent. The load carrying capacity of
such connections verymuch depends on the
reinforcement of the holes through which the lacing
passes.
FIGURE - 20
25
CLAMPED SEAMS:
A clamped seam is made by a series of shaped, overlapping plates that are clamped
together through the fabric by bolting. The strips are made in discrete lengths depending on the
curvature along theseam. This type of connection is installed on site, has a strong visual
appearance and is used to join large prefabricated membrane panels together. It can be made
out of a variety of materials capable of taking the load e.g. wood, steel, aluminium.
6.2 FABRIC TO END SUPPORT CONNECTIONS:
FIGURE - 21
There are two types, flexible or rigid, and in either case both normal and tangential forces need
to be transferred from the membrane into the edge element or system.
FLEXIBLE EDGES:
A very commonly used method with PVC/polyester fabric is to run a loose cable inside a
pocket welded continuously along the membrane edge. It is also possible to use this
arrangement for panels of PTFE/glass. It is however restricted by the length of the seam. When
tangential forces become large, the concentration of such force at the corners becomes critical
and it can be better to offset the cable from the membrane’s edge.
The edge cable can be placed outside the membrane edge and linked to it at intervals
by a sequence of straps and clamp plates. This option is used mainly for PTFE/glass fabric and
also for PVC/polyester where edge spans are larger than 20m.
Belts can be stitched or welded along the perimeter. This option applies to PVC/polyester fabric
and is used mainly for retractable roofs, umbrellas, small span and temporary structures. It
performs the function of taking up edge tangential forces. An important parameter for the
strength of the pocket is the angle between the upper and lower surfaces of pocket. This value
logically depends on the width of the pocket in relation to the diameter of the cable. This must
be large enough to avoid large peeling forces along the line where the pocket is welded to the
membrane.
26
Movements of the fabric along the cable in the tangential direction have to be prevented
so as to avoid abrasion damage. In some cases belts are used to carry the tangential
membrane forces directly into the corner. Depending on the membrane material type belts can
be joined to it by stitching or welding. They can be attached to the inside or outside of the cable
pocket. Belts on top of the membrane have to be covered so as to protect them from UV and to
avoid the growth of moss. Belts have to be compensated for their creep behaviour and require
an “initial stretch” before their installation.
RIGID CONNECTIONS:
Rigid edges are edges where the fabric is held continuously by a supporting structure
having much greater lateral stiffness compared with that of the fabric. There are a variety of
solutions and the following,Tube in a cable pocket (PVC/polyester). The points mentioned for
cable pockets are valid here. Forces travel perpendicularly into the tube. Movements along the
tube have to be prevented and the angle for the pocket has to be chosen to be small enough to
limit “peeling” forces in the seam.Channel (PVC/polyester). The membrane edge is furnished
with eyelets at frequent intervals. A rope is laced through the eyelets and around a rod in the
channel. Forces are led perpendicularly into the channel, and because of the triangular lacing,
tangential forces are taken up too. This is one of the many possibilities for a rigid channel edge.
Clamped edges. These are similar to clamped seams but there is only one layer of cloth. They
can be used for both PVC/polyester and PTFE/glass.
FIGURE - 22
27
6.3 FIELD SUPPORTS:
LINEAR SUPPORT:
The characteristic property of the “Ridge and Valley” shape (or “Wave” shape) is the
direction of its double curvature. Cables running parallel with one another give the wave shape.
The prestress in the fabric can be obtained by tensioning the ridge and/or valley cable. The
cables need to be adjustable in length.
FIGURE - 23
POINT FILED SUPPORT:
The basic anticlastic shapes of cone, hypar and

saddle obtain their surface shape from the relative
disposition of boundary supports. Forces developing within
the surface ultimately become focused at the boundary
supports. Specific detailing is required to enable this kind of
support to be effective. A very common way to control the
level of stresses in a membrane is by making use of a ring
shaped element. The diameter of the ring will depend upon
the strength of the fabric and the total load to be carried into
the support. The designer may choose to add a reinforcing
layer locally to the membrane as a means of reducing the
ring’s diameter. The ring can be made of a variety of
materials, steel being the most common. There are several
ways to attach the membrane to the ring as shown in the
accompanying pictures. To make the ring watertight it can
be covered in different ways. Sometimes it is used for
ventilation. When the internal support is used as a low
point, it will gather rainwater and snow unless drainage is
provided.
FIGURE - 24
28
FIGURE - 25
29
6.4 CORNERS:
Forces in the membrane flow into the boundary cables which, in turn transmit them to
the corners. The corners transfer these forces into the supporting structure. The detail between
the corners and the supporting structure is important and can be solved in a variety of ways.
During its lifetime a detail has different functions to perform. Before it gets to site it can be an
awkward piece of metal that is liable to damage the fabric if care is not taken in its handling. On
site it becomes active in helping to install and prestress the structure. During its service life it
must remain active as an articulated part of the structure moving in sympathy with the
membrane. In these two phases, it is required to perform different functions.
There are 5 types of corners:

1) Corner plate set apart from the fabric, and with the fabric and cables separately adjustable
(PVC/Polyester, PTFE/Glass)
2) Corner plate clamped to fabric, cables adjustable (PVC/Polyester, PTFE/ Glass)
3) Corner plate connected with keder profile to fabric, cables adjustable or of fixed length
(PTFE/Glass)
4) Corner plate clamped to fabric, continuous edge cable (PVC/Polyester)
5) Corner plate, connection with belts (PVC / Polyester)
FIGURE-26
30
FIGURE - 27
FIGURE - 28
22
FIGURE - 29
31
6.5 BASE PLATES:
Mast base plates:

– Moment resisting
– Singly hinged
– Ball and socket hinge
FIGURE - 30
Cable base plates

– Moment resisting (A threaded end through a tube is not recommended)
– Singly hinged
– Doubly hinged (Extra toggle added in between cable and base plate)
FIGURE - 31
32
6. STRUCTURAL ADVANTAGE OVER CONVENTIONAL SYSTEMS
Some of the advantages of using a tensile structure instead of a conventional steel

structure are listed below. There are certain circumstances where the tensile structures do not
have a cost advantage over the conventional structures.
One of the greatest benefits of tensile structures is that they are translucent. The woven
base cloth combined with the appropriate coating allows a light transmission value of around
10%. This provides a very comfortable level of illumination compared to the full brightness of
outside.
Glass and polycarbonate are also translucent, but the light levels under the canopy are
going to remain quite similar to those outside, so on very bright days, these materials offer little
respite.
The other factor that clearly puts fabric ahead of other materials is its clear span capabilities.
Whereas all other possible roofing materials require rigid intermediate support, fabric can span
from one boundary right across to the opposite side in one unbroken sweep. The advantages of
this are that there are no awkward or difficult sealing details that need to be addressed.
FIGURE – 32
33
FIGURE–33
Since the fabric has this amazing tensile capacity, the effect is to reduce the supporting
framework to a minimum number of components, all working efficiently as a whole system. This
in turn leads to a much more lightweight structure than other types of construction. A downside
of this is that large foundations are often required in order to prevent the wind lifting the canopy
and taking it away. However, in terms of cost, foundations are a lot easier and cheaper to
prepare than visible, above ground constructions that are exposed to weather and damage.
A tensile canopy is a great solution for an entrance canopy. It acts both as a shelter for
those leaving and entering the building and makes the entrance area clearly visible from a
distance.
The 3d nature of most canopy structures is quite unique as a building form, so it quickly
forms a visual focus of attention. If you use a more traditional structure, such as a tiled roof, or a
flat glass or polycarbonate canopy, these are unlikely to stand out so clearly. In all potential
canopy locations, you have to take into account the type of structure you wish to use. If you are
connecting to a building, you need to know that there is adequate supporting structure to
accommodate the expected loadings.
34
FIGURE–34
If there is no suitable structure within the existing building, it would be difficult to make any
meaningful connections to that building for a tensile canopy, but sufficient anchorage might be
achieved for a rigid type of construction. That said, it is nearly always possible to design the
canopy in such a way that it imposes identical loads onto a building as a rigid canopy structure
would, but in these cases, the cost of the additional engineering, steel fabrication and
installation difficulties is likely to make it an uneconomical solution.
Another situation where a tensile canopy may not offer the best solution in terms of cost is
where the fabric structure, although bespoke, is very small. It would still require that all
connections are engineered and checked; it would still require for patterning to be carried out,
the steel fabricator would still need to fabricate awkward angles and special corner plates, so
the overall cost per square metre could be much higher than if a fixed structure was used
instead. Essentially, fabric structures offer great economies of scale – small structures can cost
three or four times more per square metre than larger structures. While this is true to a degree
with all construction types, we believe the effect is much more extreme with tensile structures.
35
Fabric structures, if properly engineered and installed are virtually immune to damage and
weathering. Providing that they are not likely to be susceptible to acts of vandalism or accidental
damage from passing vehicles or falling objects, they provide a reassuringly simple and durable
solution.
An often overlooked advantage of fabric structures is that all of the manufacturing takes
place off site, in specialist membrane fabrication units and steel workshops. When the
membrane, the steelwork, cables and all other associated parts are complete and taken to site,
the actual site work can be completed very swiftly and with little disruption to other trades or the
public.
There can’t be any other ways to cover

a large piece of land as quickly as with a
tensile structure. All other construction
methods involve a lot more costly work on
site, and often cause considerable
disruption. If you think about it, with a fabric
structure, it’s quite normal that the area to
be covered is only “out of bounds” for a
short while just prior to lifting the fabric and
the bulk of the installation work will take
place at the perimeter, out of most people’s
way. Compare this with a rigid structure
that needs the construction work to be
carried out exactly where you don’t want
people working and obstructing the
route.All roofing materials will of course
collect dirt and debris on the surface,
whether glass, polycarbonate, fabric or an
opaque material. With glass or
polycarbonate, the dirt can be clearly seen,
however the light diffusing properties of the
fabric mean that the surface dirt is not
easily identified. It’s quite surprising how
good a membrane can look from below, and
then when you actually look at the top
FIGURE - 35
surface you find there’s quite a build up of dirt.Coated fabrics have very good UV absorbing
and reflection properties. That means it offers safe shade to all users and provides a very
comfortable light level. These unique properties of light reflectance and transmission also offer
exciting possibilities for lighting after dark. Directing lights under the canopy to reflect off the
underside is a great way to use uplighters, but more even lighting can be achieved under the
fabric by shining lights down on the fabric from above. Finally, they’re beautiful to look at,
they’re great fun to design, exciting to install, and a delight to own.
36
8. LITERATURE
8.1 LITERATURE REVIEW
8.1.2 GENERAL
This form of construction has only become more rigorously analyzed and widespread in
large structures in the latter part of the twentieth century. In the 1950s, architects and engineers
began to take a renewed interest in using tension as the primary method of transferring loads in
structures. Two main figures responsible for advancement in this investigation of tensile
structures were Frei Otto and Horst Berger of German.
Frei Otto - A German research engineer and architect Frei Otto, has created revolution in
20th century. In 1954 he earned his doctorate in tensioned structures and in 1957 started his
own firm which he later converted to an institute for learning. He believed in modern technology
and from the beginning, envisioned structures of extreme lightness as well as extreme strength,
which would make the optimum use of new materials such as thin cables of high strength steel
or thin membranes of synthetic fabrics. He used to develop a “soap film model” (see Fig) or a
real membrane model in which forms generate themselves in order to observe and analyze the
process of the load transfer and the deformations of the complex tensile shapes which he has
conceived. However, as the scale of his projects increased, he pioneered a computer-based
procedure for determining their shape and
behaviorHis saddle-shaped cable-net music pavilion
at the Federal Garden Exposition in Kassel brought
him his first significant attention. Otto’s light weight
tent-like structures, used to cover large areas other
major works include the West German Pavilion at the
Montreal Expo in 1967. It covered area of about
8,000 square meters having mast heights of about 14
to 38 meters.
Horst Berger - He is a structural engineer and
designer known for his work with lightweight tensile
architecture. After receiving a degree in Civil
Engineering in 1954 from Stuttgart University
in Stuttgart, Germany, he began working in 1955 at
the Bridge and Special Structures Department of
Wayss and Freitag in Frankfurt. After forming Geiger
Berger Associates in 1968 with air supported
roof inventor David Geiger, his firm gained
international recognition for its incorporation of
lightweight fabric structures into permanent
architectural designs. During his time at Geiger
Berger Associates, Horst Berger had the challenge of
engineering the 105-acre (0.42 km2) roof designed by architect FazlurRahman Khan for the Haj
Terminal at the Jeddah Airport. This tensile fabric structure consists of 210 roof units contained
in ten modules that are supported on steel pylons. In 1990 Horst Berger was asked to create a
tensile fabric roof for the Denver International Airport. Challenges of snow loading and attaching
the rigid walls to the fabric roof made it one of Berger’s toughest projects.
37
8.2 RESEARCH WORK
Membrane Structures
Space Structures- Principles and Practices, N. Subramanian
A membrane carrying load normal to its surface tends to deform into a three-dimensional
curve (depending on exact loading and support conditions) and carries the load by in-plane
tension forces that are developed in the surface of the membrane. Large flat areas in membranes
are to be generally avoided since enormous pre-stressing forces would be required to maintain
the areas when normal loads are applied to them. It is because when the sag of a cable
approaches zero, cable thrust increases indefinitely. Conversely, an indefinitely large pre-
stressing force is required to maintain a cable in a zero sag configuration under an applied
load.The amount of pre-stressing force that is applied for stabilization must not create membrane
stresses in excess of the capacity of the material used.A critical design issue in stressed skin
membranes is their edge or support conditions.Curvatures can be assured by carefully controlling
the placement of high and low points. Two high points must always be separated by a low point
and vice versa. This principle is evident in the four-point structure.Generally, the surface is
defined in regions or patterns which are joined together to form the overall surface. The patterning
will influence both the initial surface shape and the deformability and stress paths under
loading.Generally, membrane structures are designed such that flutter of the membrane does not
occur even under strong wind conditions. The large dynamic forces resulting from flutter may
cause damage to the supporting edge and possibly cause tensile failure in the membrane.The
surface is made of smaller non-uniformly-shaped strips that are specially cut. Determining the
shapes of these strips is a task into itself. The small grid shapes formed are, of course, not
uniformly shaped squares or rectangles but highly variable shapes.While these problems are, of
course, solvable, they do tend to put a different perspective on the apparent freedom in choosing
shapes that is often associated with using pre-stressed membranes.
Tensile Membrane Structures

J. SCHLAICH, R. BERGERMANN, W. SOBEK'
INVITED LECTURE IN THE lASS-CONGRESS IN MADRID. SEPTEMBER 1989
If tensile and compressivemembrane forces are permitted, we speak of shells. Ifthe

compressive forces are eliminated, we speak oftensile membrane structures. Their aim is to
actually realize the surface itself with a material which is ableto carry tensile forces only, in order
to achieve extremelightness or even translucence.Ifwe excludea preloading of the structure with
mass or weight asdone in case of hanging roofs, there remain two basic methods to apply the
necessary pre-stress: mechanical pre-stress of the surface applied from its periphery
andpneumatic pressure, the first leading to surfaces with negative Gaussian curvature the
secondto positive Gaussian curvature. The strength of a membrane depends on the type ofyarn,
the type of weave and the count used for the fabric. The strength of the detail is determined by
the strength of the coatingitself and by the adhesion of the coating to the fibers of the
fabric.Along their edges, the membranes meet a structural element which collects the
membrane forces and carriesthem to the foundations.The highly loaded edge elements are
normally ofsteel and therefore much more stiff and rigid than themembrane itself. This strongly
influences the elasticdeformations and therefore the membrane stresseswithin the edge area.To
guarantee the flow offorces from the flexible, onlytensioned and very thin membrane into the
edge elements, their connection needs very careful detailing. The standard membrane materials
and their associateddetails offer a wide range of structural possibilities.
38
THE DESIGN ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION OF TENSIONED FABRIC
MEMBERS
(P. Beccarelli, PoliMISpringerBriefs, ASCE)
The paper also compares the tensile structures with various types of other conventional
roofing forms. The three main types of membranes which can be used are, coated fabrics used
because of structural functions like weld ability and fire protections. Open meshes are used
when weather tightness is not required. Foils are used in pneumatic structures.The term tension
structures describes the category of buildings in which the load bearing capacity is achieved
through tension stress in the majority of the components, such as cables, technical fabrics or
foils. The structures may be distinguished under three heads. The Boundary Tensioned
membrane type of structure is realized by means of lightweight (0.7–1.4 kg/m2). Pneumatic
structures include all the lightweight structures in which the load bearing capacity is achieved by
means of air under pressure. Cable structures are load bearing structures composed of linear
flexible elements under tension, with the only exception being rigid members or supports such
as rigid ring beams or masts. The basic principle behind boundary tensioned and cable
structures are same. Tensile structures accommodate loads through changes in surface
tensions and very large displacements, producing a geometrically nonlinear behavior which
requires specific design software. Form-finding assures that each point of the surface is in
equilibrium, given the tension ratio in warp and fill direction and the boundary conditions.
Through the static analysis it is possible to predict the stress and the displacements which arise
in the tensioned surface due to the presence of external loads. The scope of dynamic analysis
is the evaluation of the interaction between a fluctuating external load and the structure. For
membrane structures this issue is generally related with the fluctuation of wind pressure. The
working drawings are the result of the flattening of the three-dimensional shape obtained
through the patterning process; the initial shape should be adequately compensated and
provided with the extra material necessary for the welding process and joint realization.
An Impact Vibration Experimental Research on the Pretension Rectangular

Membrane Structure
The pretension of the membrane is applied with biaxial tension bracket; the digital
dynamometer is used for measuring the change of the tension; the concentrated impact load is
applied on the surface of rectangular membrane; the displacement change of each feature point
on the membrane surface is measured by noncontact laser displacement sensor.The study
concluded that (1) the pretension of the membrane surface not only has a great influence on the
shape of the ridge valley membrane structure, but also has a significant influence on the
dynamic performance of the structure; (2) with the increase of the pretension, the stiffness of the
structure is increased and the mean and standard deviation of displacement response are
significantly reduced. In practical engineering, the pretension of membrane structures is
generally assumed to be between 5% and 10% of the design strength of the membrane
structure and the safety factor is taken to be 5. Finite Element Analysis and the actual loading
test to make the mechanical property test of the membrane structure under centrally distributed
loads, and the result is that the maximum displacement of the numerical simulation is smaller
than the maximum displacement of the experiment, while the maximum stress and strain of the
former is larger than those of the latter. Added-mass estimation is a key issue in wind-induced
vibration of membrane structures.
39
TENSIONED FABRIC SHAPE-FINDING
By A. Caner and R. Hsu, P.E., Member, ASCE
Levy and Spillers (1998) studied the shape-finding procedure for membranes and cable
nets. They separated the design process into three steps, defined as shape-finding, analysis,
and patterning. There are two methods for shape finding: the grid and the force-density
methods. In the grid method equilibrium equations were solved for a horizontal grid lying under
the structure. Vertical equilibrium equations were developed to compute the elevation for each
free joint. In force density method, geometry could be solved by a system of linear equations if
the ratio of the bar force to its length was constant. The smoothing concept is combined with
either of these two methods to maintain constant cable forces so that the material can be used
effectively, the output of the grid or force-density method is an input to the nonlinear analysis of
cable nets, with an initial constant force in cables. The elastic moduli of the elements are set to
negligible values compared to their real values so that the element stiffness matrices will not
affect forces in the cables after nonlinear analysis converges. A fabric can be modeled initially
as a 2D membrane that configures the horizontal projection of the shape of the fabric. Selected
points of a softer membrane can be displaced out of the membrane plane to determine the 3D
shape of the fabric. These displacements are generally large in magnitude; the small deflection
theory is inadequate for large displacements. Therefore, the large deformation theory should be
used to determine the shape of the membrane.The thin membrane has no bending stiffness and
therefore can be modeled by a cable net. The commercially available program LARSA has
cable elements in its library and is capable of solving large deformations. The large
displacement theory can be solved using an iterative numerical method called geometric
nonlinearity in a matrix type analysis.The length of the cable net and the edge cables attached
to the fabric can be adjusted by changing the pre-stressing forces to achieve the desired stable
design shape.
Environmental Behavior Of Tensile Membrane Structures

AmiraElNokaly*, John Chilton and Robin Wilson
School of the Built Environment, University of Nottingham.
This paper focuses on the utility applications of Tensile membrane structures which
includes their application in environmental performances by use of solar energy in order to
reduce the conventional energy consumption. These structures can be used as climate
modifiers or climate regulatorsoffering a protected microclimate within which conventional
buildings may be sited and operated in a highly efficient manner. In early attempts thermal
behavior of these structures was understood by using concepts of U-Values and Solar heat Co-
efficient, adopting a steady state technique was found to be inappropriate for describing thermal
properties and the negligible thickness of these structures was found to be allowing heat flow
being determined by surface effects, model testing and computational fluid dynamics were
carried out but the results were still far from satisfactory. In the present study it shows that the
fabric skin acts as passive filters capable of modifying both thermal and light levels within the
enclosed space to minimize reliance on conventional forms. The amount and direction of
conduction of heat through a fabric structure depends upon the internal and external
temperature, wind speed, and on the thickness of fabric and whether it is single or double
membrane. Solar to electric energy conversion is about 5-8%. If fabric structures are to
compete with more conventional building types, which have well established levels of
environmental performance and face fairly strict energy consumption legislation, designers and
manufacturers must be able to accurately predict their environmental and thermal behavior and
ensure an appropriate comfort level for the occupiers of the spaces.
40
RELIABILITY OF NONLINEAR FRAMED STRUCTURES
(Tai-Yan Kam, Ross B. Corotis,and Edwin C. Rossow,M. ASCE.)
The assessment of reliability for framed steel structures is approached by the

determination of limit state surfaces in load space.Surfaces corresponding to initial yield,
plastic hinge formation and mechanism formation or structural instability are found
by an incremental loading procedure along proportional load paths from the point of
expected values. A previously derived stiffness matrix for wide-flange steel members subject to
elasto-plastic bending and derived from moment-thrust-curvature equations is utilized. The non-
linear frame response is based on a tangential stiffness matrix for which each cross section of a
member may experience various degrees of partial plastic behavior. A recent model for the non-
linear behavior of connections reflecting moment and axial force coupling due to non-centroidal
rotation is also incorporated. Load combination permits the inclusion of arbitrary point-in-time as
well as lifetime maximum probability distributions of live and wind loads.The basic assumptions
adopted herein for the structural reliability analysis of frames are that the
members are prismatic and straight and follow Simple bending theory. The material of wide-
flange sections is linearly elastic-perfectly and all the plastic strain reversal and residual
cooling stresses in members are neglected. Local failure in any member is neglected. The
resistance of a structure is considered to be a constant known quantity while the loads
are random variables.
Three kinds of states are considered here in the reliability analysis of frames.First
yielding in the structure, first formation of a plastic hinge in the structure; and Formation of
a local mechanism. The first yield in the structure occurs when some member section
is loaded beyond the yield strain. The second state occurs when the plastic is formed in the
structure. And the third stage is reached when either a part of the structure or the whole
structure collapses.For the reliability analysis of frames, the limit states of a frame have
been defined as the first yield, the first plastic hinge, and the collapse of the frame, and they are
constructed by utilizing the incremental load procedure. Comparisons of reliabilities between
frames with and without flexible connections are made. The results show that the
flexible connections have a significant influence on the reliability of these frames.
Since the failure of the connections has not been considered in the analysis, it cannot be
concluded this moment that a frame constructed with flexible connections is actually more
reliable. In the reliability analysis, it has been observed that the evaluation of the failure
probability by numerical schemes requires very little computational time in comparison to the
construction of the limit state equation by the incremental load procedure.
41
LARGE DEFORMATION ANALYSIS OF ELASTIC SPACE FRAMES
AslamKassimali and Reza Abbasnia.ASCE.
A method for large deformation and stability analysis of elastic space frames is presented. The
method is based on an Eulerian formulation, which takes into consideration the effects of large
joint translations and rotations. Local member force-deformation relationships are based on the
beam-column approach, and the changes in member chord lengths caused by axial strain and
flexural bowing are taken into account. The effect of axial force on member torsional stiffness is
included in the analysis. The method employs an orthogonal joint rotation matrix to determine
the orientation matrices of the joints in the deformed configuration of the structure. A procedure
for determining the deformed orientations of joints and members of space
framesis described in detail and the computational aspects of the analytical procedure are
examined.
To assess the computational merits and limitations of the analytical procedure, as well
as to study the influence of simplifying approximations, numerical solutions have been obtained
for four types of frames. Judging from the limited numerical data presented herein, the method
of analysis proves to be highly accurate, even when the deformations of the structure are quite
large. In most problems studied, Oran's simplified joint and member orientation matrices did
indeed yield solutions in close agreement with those based on the orthogonal joint and member
orientation matrices presented. However, it may be preferable to use the present
formulation, because the additional computational work required is often negligibly small and, in
some cases the use of non-orthogonal orientation matrices may lead to erroneous results.
Defects in Tensioned Membrane Structure

Chuen Wang, Hamzah Abdul-Rahman, Linconseawoods. 2013
A structure is considered defective when there are shortcomings or failings in the function,
performance, or statutory or user requirements of a building. These may be apparent within the
structure, fabric, services, or other facilities of the affected building
Defects in TMS can be split into three categories:

(1) Aesthetic: When a structural element or material is unfavorably affected or fails to be
visually pleasing.
(2) Functional: When a structure fails to perform its intended function or manner.
(3) Technical: When the workmanship, design, or materials of an element decrease its
capacity to functionally perform.
Types of Defects in TMS:

1. Membranes/fabric: The defects that occur in membrane are Tearing of fabric, Folding and
scratches of fabric, Wrinkling of fabric, Flapping and fluttering of fabric, Degradation of fabric, Fungal
decay, mold growth, and dirt in membrane
2. Anchorage: the defects that can occur due the connection problems can by distinguished
as Corrosion in anchor cables, Deflection of anchors
3. Cables/ropes: There may arise defects in cable systems or in the rope which are acting as
structural members, the defects are Slack or drooping cable/ropes, Corrosion in cables.
4. Mast/pole: The mast or pole which are compression members can undergo failures similar
to conventional structures that is Deflection of mast,Change of mast position.
5. Rings and arches: the rings and arches which act as the boundary tension members can
undergo the following defects like Corrosion.
42
6. The anchorage connectors may undergo corrosion or fatigue in fixings
7. The defects in foundations are in form of cracks due to compression failures.
8. There may arise the defects due to subgrade material in coatings and tearing of them.
9. Service failures like Lighting breakdown and Lack of water drainage and pooling of water may
arise in the long term use of fabrics.
Causes of defects:
The causes of failures may be due to Weather or due to Design of the members. Even for a
best design the construction and installation process may be at fault and cause failure. The long life
span of structures may cause the deterioration of fabrics. The user involvements can cause defects in
membranes. Finally the defects may be summarized as due to poor quality of fabrics or due to poor
workmanship during design or construction.
43
9. IMPORTANT STEPS REGARDING DESIGN PROCEDURE
FIGURE-36
44
10. DESIGN STANDARDS
10.1 DESIGN LOADING CONDITIONS
By the very nature of lightweight structures, the ratio of applied loading to self-
weight is usually many times larger than that of conventional structures. Changes in
the magnitude of wind and snow loading are therefore likely to have a
proportionately larger impact on the size of the structural members required and the scale of
deflections experienced. Consequently the selection of suitable loading patterns for
the design of membrane structures has to be carefully considered. Furthermore the codes are
written for standardized building shapes and
building behavior, usually making the application of a single code is very difficult. As a
consequence more time and effort needs to be spent in defining load cases.
10.1.1 Compensation
Membrane structures are usually ‘compensated’ so that the fabric will achieve the
predefined pre-stress levels at the correct geometry once the creep of the membrane has
occurred. The compensation process accounts for the elastic stretch of membrane and
cables, and for the creep of the membrane. A “force controlled” pre-stress regime is
one in which all elements including the membrane reach their predefined pre-stress values, but
will need to be subjected to re-tensioning after the early creep has occurred. Using a
geometrically controlled pre-stress regime requires detailed analysis to avoid overstressing the
membrane should it be subjected to high external loading shortly after installation.
10.1.2 Replacement of the membrane
The procedures for membrane renewal and maintenance need

to be considered during the design stage. Where for instance a panel of the membrane
may need to be replaced the consequential effect on remaining structure, in terms of changes to
membrane stresses, element forces and movements, should be considered.
i. Self weight
The self weight of the membrane is commonly between 0.7-2.0 kg/m2. It is not usual to
include the self weight in the form finding process because this may
introduce some additional mechanical freedom into the response of the membrane to wind uplift
loadings. Although this is usually a trivial effect, in some cases it may be significant for
example in relatively lightly stressed membrane surfaces using
heavier grade fabrics.
ii. Wind
Wind, especially in the form of uplift, is regularly the critical case
for membrane and cable stresses in lightweight membrane
structures. It is generally considered as a static load case, defined by a
dynamic pressure multiplied by a pressure coefficient (Cp). It is also assumed
that the membrane undergoes only slight changes to
its geometry such that changes to Cp factors are small enough to be safely
ignored.There are different conditions forCp values. Membranes are
single layer elements with wind load often exerted on both faces.
FIGURE-37
45
iii. Snow
For long-span structures, it is recommended that the ground snow load be investigated
using available data from the local meteorological office. In areas
not subjected to snow loads, a nominal uniformly distributed load of 0.3kN/m2 should
nevertheless be considered. This figure may be reduced for structures with spans over 50m
by applying a detailed statistical investigation accounting for loading by rain, fallen leaves,
sand/dirt etc.
iv. Temperature
Temperature effects in respect of overall structural behavior and load analysis are
usually found to be less significant on fabric structures when compared with rigid construction.
Temperature change manifests itself in relatively small ±variation in pre-stress levels. However,
temperature effects are more important for steel cable nets.
v. Seismic loading
In general seismic loads are not a problem as membrane structures

weigh so little and so will not pick up acceleration forces under seismic action. Should the
structure contain relatively massive components such as struts or connections,
then these will be subject to accelerations under seismic loading.
vi. Load combination
To take account of the large deflections of membrane structures, analysis has to be

made using unfactored loads. It is very important that the results of a load
combination are found by adding loads and then analyzing, rather than analyzing each load
separately and then adding the results. The pre-stress and self-weight loads should be part of
all load cases.Example load cases to be considered:
a) Self weight + pre-stress
b) Self weight + pre-stress + snow
c) Self weight + pre-stress + wind
d) Self weight + pre-stress + wind (downward pressures) + snow
10.2 DESIGN BASIS AND SAFETY CRITERIAS USED IN VARIOUS CODES.
Generally a limit state approach is used for the design of structures in which for various
combinationsof factored load the structure and its components should comply with
acceptablestrength criteria, and for various working load combinations acceptable deformation
anddegradation limits should not be exceeded.For structures which exhibit stronggeometric
non-linearity, in particular stiffening systems such as tensile structures, a limit stateapproach
(with partial safety factors applied to the loading conditions as well as materialstrengths) may
not be appropriate since the geometry of the structure is dependent on boththe magnitude and
the distribution of loading; the changes in geometry being particularlysignificant for non-uniform
loading distributions.
46
Components of stressed fabrics, cables, ropes and webbing belts,design loads are taken
as the characteristic loads (or maximum service design loads) andthe various components are
then checked on a permissible stress basis which in additionto allowing for material variability
also allows for appropriate partial factors of safety associatedwith the type of loading.In addition
to the stress factor approach for the non-linear analysis, it is proposed that fortensile systems
employing support structures which may be subject to snap-through buckling(such as slender
arch supported cable nets or membranes) an ultimate load stabilitycheck should be used with a
factor of 2 applied for medium or long term loads and a factorof 1.8 for gust wind loads.
THE IASS WORKING GROUP 7 RECOMMENDATIONS.
The IASS working group 7 recommendations proposes that the total “safety” factor must
include a coefficient of application, a coefficient of importance, and uncertainty factorsrelating to
the estimation of loads, the accuracy and verification of the structural calculations, and the
quality of execution of the work. Values for these coefficients are:
• Coefficient of unevenness of material:1.25 for warp & 1.43 for weft
• Coefficient for accuracy of calculations: L2 = 1.0 when confirmed by experiment otherwise: 1.3
• Coefficients for uncertainty of loading, for application, and for execution all normally: 1.0
• Coefficient for material reliability / reliability of test results: 1.1 < L5 < 1.3
• Other factors / unforeseen aspects: L5 = 1.2 (min)
The product of these coefficients lies in the range: 2.1-2.5 for warp, and 2.5-2.9 for weft.
THE FRENCH DESIGN GUIDE FOR PERMANENT TENSILE FABRICS
Permissible stress resultants Tp (warp or weft) are given by:Tp = (Kq.Ke .Tsm ) / Sf
Tsm = specified minimum breaking strength; Kq = 1.0 for tested or certified seams and fabric,
0.8 otherwise; Ke = 1.0 for surface area < 50sqm, 0.8 for surface area > 1000sqm. Sf = Security
factor depending on environmental degradation = 4.0 for soft pollution; 4.5 for strong pollution.
THE MEMBRANE STRUCTURES ASSOCIATION OF JAPAN
The Membrane Structures Association of Japan guide for “Specific Membrane

Structures”allows stresses of Tsm / 8 for sustained loads and Tsm / 4 for temporary loads on
flexiblemembrane regions. (For membranes used effectively as cladding on primary space or
framedstructures these factors are reduced to Tsm / 6 and Tsm / 3).
DIN 4134 AND THE DISSERTATION OF “MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF

CONNECTIONSOF COATED FABRICS”
The allowablestresses are defined by:
fd=(ftk / Ares) = ftk /(gf . gM. Ai)
fd = allowable stress; ftk = tensile strength defined as 5%-fractile of at least 5 strips 10cm wide,
tested at 23 °C; gf = load-factor; gM = material safety coefficient for all approved materials;
gM = 1.4 within the fabric surface, or = 1.5 for connections.
Ai = combination of reduction factors depending on load case.
Permanent:gf = 1.5 x Prestress and Self Weight.
Wind storm gf=1.6 x Prestress and Self Weight and Wind Load.
Maximum Snow gf = 1.5 x Prestress and Self Weight and Snow Load.
47
11. FABRICATION, INSTALLATION AND MAINTAINANCE
Introduction:
The use of mechanically or pneumatically tensioned fabric structures is gaining

increasing importance. The recommendations are directed towards soundness and durability in
the finished work as well as ensuring that production and assembly are executed in a sound and
diligent manner.
In order to provide a sufficient level of assurance to their customers a company should employ
appropriately skilled labour, machinery and materials so as to be able to realize the works
according to the required standard throughout the following operations:
a) Patterning
b) Plotting the patterns onto the cloth
c) Cutting
d) Welding
e) Assembling
f) Installation on site, adjustment and completions
g) Quality control and testing.
Qualification of Membrane Fabricator and Staff:
The membrane fabricator should demonstrate his capacity to make and install membrane
structures by reference to previously constructed work, size of the work and also its complexity.
The fabricator should posses following things to work out the project efficiently:
a) Latest machinery enabling proper production & processing.
b) Expert &qualified staff of employees.
c) Own premises.
d) Accredited quality control system.
e) Suitably calibrated testing machines for regular inspection.
f) Health and safety regards at factory as well as at the site.
Cutting Pattern Determination, Workshop Drawings:
Cutting patterns and workshop drawings shall be prepared with utmost care meeting the
tolerances given in the project specifications. For this purpose the appropriate technical
equipment or software and trained engineers are to be used. If the data is to be provided by an
external engineering office, such data should be checked by the fabricator’s team before cutting
commences.
The welded seam width should be determined by uni-axial short term strength tests using
calibrated testing equipment. The tests should be applied in warp and weft in accordance with
specified standards. Welding seam strength depends substantially on the adhesion of the
coating onto the weave, the welding parameters, and the seam width. Seam strength tests are
therefore required for each processed material lot. The following table proposes welded widths
for a simple overlap weld.
Proposed seam widths:
Type I: 40 mm;
Type II: 60 mm;
Type III: 80 mm;
Type IV: 80 mm;
Type V: 100 mm.
48
The plans are to be provided with caution notes, control measures and tolerances necessary for
quality monitoring. In preparing these drawings it must be checked that each pattern can be cut
from the roll as a complete piece.
In particular, the following detail information should be included:

● Layout plans including the numbering system of the individual parts and fabric panel
distribution.
● Drawings of the individual panels including relevant co-ordinates, definition of the weft
and warp directions, seams and seam widths.
● The welding process to be used.
● Detailed information for all elements (such as clamping plates, corner fittings, cables to
be pulled through, etc.) that are to be connected to the membrane during the shop-
phase.
Acquisition of the Membrane Material:
The membrane material has to be ordered in accordance with the agreed engineering design
specification. It has to be ordered in the width required by the cutting patterns. The membrane
quantity to be ordered should be determined in such a way that the complete project, or at least
the panels related to a single prefabricated membrane field, can be manufactured from a single
production lot. Marking rules and other specifications such as minimum roll length, type of
packaging, etc. should be included in the order
Incoming Goods Inspection:

Supplied material should be checked for quality conformance, quantity and surface appearance
immediately upon receipt of the goods. Prior to intermediate storage or release for production,
the individual lots should be checked for conformance with the technical data. Tensile strength
tests in weft and warp at 23 °C and adhesion tests using suitably calibrated test machines
shouldbe carried out. For certified manufacturers random tests taken on different rolls will be
sufficient.
Cutting:Only previously approved material shall be used for processing. Individual pieces can
be cut out by hand using rigid templates, or by a laser cutting head directed automatically via
electronic data files. This log should be completed by adding the corresponding roll and batch
number so as to ensure a detailed traceability in case of any latent defects that may appear at a
later date. The individual pieces should be marked in accordance with the panel layout so that
correct placing within the completed panel is
ensured.
CNC cutter is capable of cutting fabric up to 3.2
meters wide and unlimited lengths. Shape is no
problem either; with advanced CAD technology
we can cut even the most complex patterns and
adjust layouts to minimize fabric
wastage. Interchangeable blades mean that as
well as bespoke patterns, we can cut regular
circular shapes as small as 10mm in diameter.
A wide range of fabrics can be cut including:
PVC coated polyester
PTFE coated glass cloth
Upholstery material & leather
Rubber CarpetingKevlar
FIGURE - 38
49
Welding:
Appropriate to each task, the welding electrode, heating bars or similar have to be prepared.
The equipment must be checked for operative readiness, accurate adjustment and cleanliness.
The results of the tests and the parameters have to be recorded and included in the project
documentation.
FIGURE - 39
Prior to the start of processing, it has to be ensured that the correct side of each of the
individual panels is marked to show which face is “uppermost”. Welded seams have to be
visually inspected by the machine operator and periodic checks may be performed by the
welding expert. In case of visibly poor aspects (too much squeezed coating material,
unprotected fabric), processing has to be stopped immediately and the relevant membrane
sections must be discarded. Deviations from the specified parameters and features should be
recorded in a welding log with an accurate location within the welded panel.
Sewing:In order to provide first class sewing services we can have a dedicated sewing room
equipped with a wide range of industrial sewing
machines capable of sewing even the toughest
materials; from leather and webbing to lycra and
lightweight meshes.
Packaging and Transportation: The individual

membrane elements are to be packed in
accordance with the packaging instructions (folding
plan, marking specifications, type of packaging,
planned transportation) in such a way that any
damage in transit is excluded and that identification
of discrete items at the site is possible.
FIGURE –40
50
FIGURE – 41
In order to prevent damage during transportation, each individual membrane element
has to be wrapped in a protective covering made of PVC. The packaging has to be chosen so
as to ensure damage-free loading and unloading.
The folded and packaged membrane must not be walked on or put under load at any
stage by depositing other components on it. For truck or container transport separate
precautions may have to be taken.
Erection:
An appropriate erection method has to be developed. In this the “structure’s “stage-by-stage”

stability, the handling of the material, the site situation and the weather conditions likely to
prevail during the erection period, all have to be taken into account in the planning of the work.
The designer should determine the final erection calculations and the magnitude of the
forces which are to be applied in a predetermined sequence of assembly. The erection
calculations are an essential part of the calculation and drawing dossier.
During erection of the structure, the relevant safety regulations need to be observed and
implemented. Corresponding measures and equipment should be provided in due time before
starting the assembly. The erection team need to be equipped with corresponding safety
clothing and gear (helmet, safety harness, rescue lines, etc.).
51
FIGURE-42
All members of the erection team need to be trained for the type and scope of the
assembly and should have sufficient experience. Prior to the start of the assembly, the erection
team has to review all relevant detail plans together with the chief engineer. A copy of all plan
layouts and general arrangement drawings need to be kept at the site.
The membrane should only be laid out on an appropriate protective groundsheet. The
instructions of the folding and unfolding plans are to be observed. The protective groundsheet
has to be selected so that any damage of the membrane by sharp-edged objects, rocks, etc. is
avoided. Where required the ground has to be prepared accordingly. The membrane must be
handled with the utmost care. Precautions must be taken to avoid mechanical damage to the
membrane and prevent any form of traffic over it.
The membranes need to be lifted and secured as quickly as
possible to prevent any damage during the initial erection phase.
Corresponding safety measures have to be scheduled prior to the
start of the installation.
During the erection period, precaution needs to be taken to

avoid damage, in particular corrosion damage to pre-installed
works and to steel components already installed. If damage has
occurred a report has to be made immediately and the affected
items repaired.
During erection, appropriate and continuous checks have
to be made to ensure that the target dimensions are being
approached, that damage to the material is avoided, that proper
connection to the anchor points occurs and that the membrane is
kept free from any debris at all times.
FIGURE - 43
52
Maintenance:
The degree of maintenance that a tensile structure will require depends on a number of factors
e.g. design, function, aesthetic expectations, materials and site environments, and this may
range from “practically maintenance free” to “regular maintenance required”.
i. CLEANING
The accumulation of dirt depends on the environmental conditions of the site, the fabric
material and the shape of the membrane. From the technical point of view a membrane
structure does not necessarily need to be cleaned. For most membrane materials, whilst
cleaning does not extend their life expectancy, faulty cleaning may reduce it.
FIGURE - 44
ii. CORROSION
The corrosion protection system/materials should be chosen in relation to the environmental

conditions of the site. The structure shall be regularly inspected for corrosion of the supporting
structure, the cables (especially where the cables enters end fittings), all clamping profiles and
bolted connections. Where corrosion has occurred it shall be removed and anticorrosive surface
treatments shall be applied. Corroded bolted connections shall be replaced.
iii. WATER DRAINAGE AND PONDING

There is a risk that ponding may occur in membrane areas of low surface inclination since
there is always a deflection of the fabric under load. Tensile fabric structures should be
monitored after heavy rain or snow falls and melting snow in order to make sure that ponding
has not occurred.
If ponding was to occur then snow and water would need to be removed immediately.
Ponding may result in the failure of the fabric if rain or snow fall were to continue, consequently
the area underneath the roof would need to be closed immediately to the public and measures
taken to prevent new ponding situations.
53
iv. PRESTRESS AND RESTRESS
Fabric structures rely for their structural stability on the maintenance of prestress in the
fabric. The level of prestress influences the deflection of the fabric under load. If the prestress is
too low the fabric may move strongly or flutter under wind.
Since fabrics tend to relax and creep under constant load, the prestress will change during
the lifetime of the structure. The specific characteristics of the fabric material being used for a
specific structure are determined by biaxial testing and find their way into the prestress design
concept.
v. REPAIR
Coated fabrics can be repaired on site when small damages occur. These may occur during
installation, by vandalism or by accident. The material should be regularly checked for damage
to the base cloth as well as to the coating. Damages like small tears or holes up to a length of
5cm can be repaired by welding patches directly onto the outside of the fabric. Patches should
always have rounded corners.
The area of the weld shall be cleaned to make sure that it is free of dust and grease and oil
including finger marks. Repair works should only be conducted by experienced staff.
vi. REPLACEMENT
Replacement of a fabric is simplified by keeping all as-built workshop drawings over the
structure’s lifetime. However compensation tests will be needed for the new fabric to be used in
the structure. New cutting patterns may need to be made if the original roll width is no longer
available. A complete new form finding would also be necessary taking into account the
superstructure measurements from the “as-built” structure.
It is recommended to dismantle the structure some time before the new fabric will be supplied in
order to have time for the aforementioned maintenance/replacement of other structural
components.
FIGURE - 45
54
12. DESIGN REPORTS OF CASE1 - HAJ HOUSE MUMBAI
GENERAL ASPECTS
The proposed tensile structure is located in Mumbai. The structure is made up of mild steel
tubular sections.
Purpose of construction: The structure provides roof to the area using tensile fabric membranes
and steel.
Materials:-
Rolled sections and plates
All structural steel shall confirm to the requirements of the following Indian standards as
specified.
IS 2062 Structural steel (Minimum Fy = 250 MPa)
IS 1161 Hollow steel section for structural use.
Material properties
a) All mild steel part shall have minimum Young’s modulus of 2.1 x 1010 kg/m2& density
equal to 7850 kg/m3.
b) Yield strength of mild steel used shall be as specified.
c) Fabric specifications that can be used are enclosed herewith.
FIGURE - 46
55
LOAD ASSUMPTIONS AND COMBINATIONS
Units
All units are specified in SI system for solving equations. Forces are in Kilo Newton and
moments in KN-m.
Sign conventions
Positive signs indicate compression and negative signs indicate tension.
Dead Weight
The dead weight is assumed including all the fittings. Absorption of liquid is not possible, so any
addition in the dead load due to water ingress is not possible.
Imposed Loads
Referring to the table 2 Clause 4.1 of IS875 (Part 2)
With slope greater than 100 imposed load is calculated as given below
Angle of the line joining top and bottom end of the curved arch is 160.
Therefore, 0.75 – 0.02 x (16-10) = 0.63 KN/m2.
Wind loads
For Mumbai basic wind speed is 44m/s (As per IS875 Part 3)
Basic wind speed is modified according to the following factors
Vz = Vb x k1 x k2 x k3
Where, k1 = 0.91
K2 = 0.88
K3 = 1
Vz = 44 x 0.91 x 0.88 x 1= 35.24 m/s
Design wind pressure, PZ = 0.6 x VZ2 = 0.6 x 35.242 = 745.12 N/m2
Load Combinations
1) Dead Load + Imposed Load
2) Dead Load + Wind Load (UP)
3) Dead Load + Wind Load (DOWN)
56
STRUCTURAL FRAME AND TENSILE CANOPY
FIGURE - 47
57
12.1 DESIGN OF ONE PANEL OF TENSILE ROOF USINGFORMFINDER
FABRIC USED MEHATOP F1 (FR 700 TYPE1 7205)
TENSILE STREGTH 60KN/m
FIGURE - 48
58
59
60
12.2 DESIGN OF SPACE FRAME AS AN ALTERNATIVE SOLUTION:
61
FIGURE - 49
SECTIONS
Axial Shear Torsion Bending

Section Max Fx kNMax Fy kNMax Fz kNMax Mx kNm Max My kNmMax Mz kNm
PIP483M Max +ve 23.067 0.036 0 0.015 0 0
Max -ve -23.954 -0.036 0 -0.015 0 -0.017
PIP483M Max +ve 23.292 0.036 0 0.017 0 0
Max -ve -21.704 -0.036 0 -0.017 0 -0.017
PIP1397MMax +ve 35.305 33.831 1.903 0.009 3.858 8.892
Max -ve -35.213 -35.743 -1.754 -0.008 -3.556 -9.394
TUB49492.9
Max +ve 7.817 0.446 0.019 0.006 0.02 0.395
Max -ve -7.899 -0.438 -0.019 -0.006 -0.02 -0.375
PIP603M Max +ve 50.094 2.692 1.317 0.017 0.301 0.745
Max -ve -48.244 -2.65 -1.316 -0.017 -0.301 -0.757
STEEL TAKE OFF
INCREASING 15% FOR CONNECTIONS AND SHEETINGS
Total weight in KN: 75.25
62
13. DESIGN REPORTS OF CASE2 – CIDCO STADIUM, NASHIK
GENERAL ASPECTS
An indoor stadium has been proposed. The structure is made up of mild steel tubular sections.
Overall plan dimensions of proposed building are 61m width x 67m long. The viewer gallery is
on either side along the length of the structure. The central court yard dimensions are 35m x
64m. The clear height at the center is about 15m.The roof is proposed in structural steel. The
truss spans between the outer RCC columns which are 61m apart at a distance of 10m c/c in
other direction.
Materials:-
Rolled sections and plates
All structural steel shall confirm to the requirements of the following Indian standards as
specified.
IS 2062 Structural steel (Minimum Fy = 250 MPa)
IS 1161 Hollow steel section for structural use.
Material properties
a) All mild steel part shall have minimum Young’s modulus of 2.1 x 1010 kg/m2& density
equal to 7850 kg/m3.
b) Yield strength of mild steel used shall be as specified.
c) Fabric specifications that can be used are enclosed herewith.
63
LOAD ASSUMPTIONS AND COMBINATIONS
Units
All units are specified in SI system for solving equations. Forces are in Kilo Newton and
moments in KN-m.
Sign conventions
Positive signs indicates compression and negative signs indicate tension.
Dead Weight
The dead weight is assumed including all the fittings. Absorption of liquid is not possible, so any
addition in the dead load due to water ingress is not possible.
Imposed Loads
Referring to the table 2 Clause 4.1 of IS875 (Part 2)
Wind loads
For Nashik basic wind speed is 39m/s (As per IS875 Part 3)
Basic wind speed is modified according to the following factors
Vz = Vb x k1 x k2 x k3
Where, k1 = 0.91
K2 = 0.88
K3 = 1
Vz = 39 x 0.91 x 0.88 x 1= 31.23 m/s
Design wind pressure, PZ = 0.6 x VZ2 = 0.6 x 35.242 = 585.18 N/m2
Load Combinations
1) Dead Load + Imposed Load

2) Dead Load + Wind Load (UP)
3) Dead Load + Wind Load (DOWN)
64
13.1 STRUCTURAL FRAME
FIGURE - 50
DESIGN OF SECTIONS
ADDING 15% FOR CONNECTIONS AND SHEETING:
Total Weight in KN: 58.305
65
13.2 DESING OF 3D TUBULAR TRUSS
FIGURE - 51
DESIGN OF SPACE FRAME
Sr. No. NAME Ax OD Tw Iz Iy Ix
1 PIP2730H 49.5 27.3 0.59 4417 4417 8834.361
2 PIP1524M 22.3 15.24 0.48 607 607 1213.526
3 PIP1143M 15.5 11.43 0.45 234.3 234.3 468.639
4 PIP424M 3.71 4.24 0.3 7.25 7.25 14.495
5 PIP1016H 14.6 10.16 0.48 171 171 342.786
6 PIP1651H 27.1 16.51 0.54 865 865 1729.397
7 PIP1937M 31.9 19.37 0.54 1417 1417 2833.947
8 PIP1651M 24.2 16.51 0.48 777 777 1554.25
9 PIP1683H 27.6 16.83 0.54 918 918 1835.372
10 PIP1397M 20.3 13.97 0.48 463 463 926.651
11 PIP1270M 18.4 12.7 0.48 344 344 688.992
12 PIP1270L 17.3 12.7 0.45 325 325 650.574
13 PIP603M 6.41 6.03 0.36 25.9 25.9 51.747
14 PIP1016L 11.1 10.16 0.36 133 133 266.475
15 PIP1016M 12.3 10.16 0.4 146 146 292.569
16 PIP889L 8.62 8.89 0.32 79.2 79.2 158.412
17 PIP889M 10.7 8.89 0.4 96.3 96.3 192.68
18 PIP603L 5.23 6.03 0.29 21.6 21.6 43.185
19 PIP3556H 87.4 35.56 0.8 13201 13201 26402.75
20 PIP337L 2.54 3.37 0.26 3.09 3.09 6.185
66
STEEL TAKE-OFF
ADDING 15% FOR CONNECTIONS AND SHEETING:
Total weight in KN=50.45
67
13.3 DESIGN OF TENSILE-ROOF CANOPY
FIGURE - 52
68
STEEL TAKE OFF:
Weight of 6 columns and adding 15% of cables the total weight of steel
sums up to be 4.65 KN.
69
14. SUMMARY
14.1 CASE 1 - HAJ HOUSE TENSILE CANOPY
Haj House is situated in Mumbai. This Tensile Canopy is a Structure covering the
entrance foyer. It covers an area of3400 sq. ft. Edge pipes are directly connected to the
columns of existing building. The above study has compared this tensile canopy with a space
truss of our own design as an alternative.
The Design of Steel frame of canopy and Space Truss was completed using Staad.Pro
Software and the results are tabulated from the Analysis Report. Design of both the Structures
was optimized for all the governing factors. TheDesign of both structures was used to derive the
steel out-take, economic liability and material specification. It was concluded through statistical
and graphical analysis that the tensile canopy outclassed the conventional steel space frame on
the parameters such as steel required and cost effectiveness.
OVERALL COST OF STRUCTURE(LAKHS)

5
4.5
3.5
COST IN LAKHS
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
TENSILE CANOPY SPACE FRAME
Series1 2.57 4.39
TYPE OF STRUCTURE
FIGURE - 53
70
OVERALL WEIGHT OF
STRUCTURE(KN)
80
70
60
WEIGHT IN (KN)
50
40
30
20
10
0
Series1 37.88 75.25
TYPE OF STRUCTURE
FIGURE - 54
AMOUNT OF STEEL(KN)
70
60
AMOUNT OF STEEL (KN)
50
40
30
20
10
0
Series1 35.459 65.667
TYPE OF STRUCTURE
FIGURE - 55
71
14.2 CASE 2 – CIDCO STADIUM ROOF COVERING
KridaSankulis situated at CIDCO, NASHIK. This Tensile Roof Covering is a Structure

covering the entire Indoor Stadium. It covers an area of 45,320 sq. ft. Edge pipes and fabric are
connected with Cables and seam stitching. The above study has compared this tensile roof
covering with a two-dimensional tubular roof truss and a space truss of our own design as an
alternative.
The Design of Steel frame of canopy, the two dimensional roof and Space Truss was
completed using Staad.Pro Software and the results are tabulated from the Analysis Report.
Design of both the Structures was optimized for all the governing factors. The Design of both
structures was used to derive the steel out-take, economic liability and material specification. It
was concluded through statistical and graphical analysis that the tensile roof covering
outclassed the conventional steel truss and space frame on the parameters such as steel
required and cost effectiveness.
OVERALL COST OF STRUCTURE

(LAKHS)
80
70
60
COST IN LAKHS
50
40
30
20
10
0
ARCH TRUSS SPACE FRAME TENSILE STRUCTURE
Series1 72.76 58.79 39.553
TYPE OF STRUCTURE
FIGURE - 56
72
OVERALL WEIGHT IN KN
70
60
50
WEIGHT IN KN
40
30
20
10
0
ARCH TRUSS SPACE FRAME TENSILE STRUCTURE
Series1 58.305 50.45 36.374
TYPE OF STRUCTURE
FIGURE - 57
AMOUNT OF STEEL IN KN
60
AMOUNT OF STEEL IN KN
50
40
30
20
10
0
TENSILE
ARCH TRUSS SPACE FRAME
STRUCTURE
Series1 50.7 43.853 4.65
TYPE OF STRUCTURE
FIGURE - 58
73
15. CONCLUSION
This comparative study showcases the superiority of the tensile structures as compared to
the conventional steel structures for covering large areas. The advantage of using tensile
canopy is apparent as shown with the help of the graphs. It is not only a cost effective solution
but also an aesthetically pleasing one too. The tensile structures are a relatively newer concept
which is just entering the Indian construction scenario and quickly gaining popularity. The
following are the areas where the tensile structure outclasses the conventional forms of
structures:
 Flexible Design Aesthetics
Tensile membrane structures provide virtually unlimited designs of distinctive elegant

forms that can be realized because of the unique flexible characteristics of membrane resulting
in an iconic and unique structure or feature for any building owner, city or even region. Also,
fewer support columns create more functional, aesthetically pleasing spaces.
 Outstanding Translucency
In daylight, fabric membrane translucency offers soft diffused naturally lit spaces reducing
the interior lighting costs while at night, artificial lighting creates an ambient exterior
luminescence.
 Shortened Construction Schedules
Incorporating the most modern construction techniques, large fabricated membrane panels
can be installed quickly to shorten installation schedules. Likewise, fabric removal can be
accomplished easily. The erection of the tensile structures takes less than a week to complete
as all the fabrication works are mostly carried out in warehouses and the structure is erected on
site.
 Excellent Durability
With several different membranes in the market place such as PTFE fiber glass, ETFE film,
coated PVC, and ePTFE, the durability and longevity of tensile membrane structures have been
proven and built in climates ranging from the frigid artic to the scorching desert heat. Companies
such as Mehler provide about 10-15 years of warranty for their fabrics and usually the minimum
life span of these structures is about 25 years.
74
 Lightweight Nature
The lightweight nature of membrane is a cost effective solution that requires less structural
steel to support the roof compared to conventional building materials, enabling long spans of
column-free space. As is evident from the above given comparative graphs it is found that the
total reduction in steel consumption when using tensile structures as opposed to the
conventional forms of the structures is about 50-60% in each case.
 Low Maintenance
Tensile membrane systems are somewhat unique in that they require minimal maintenance
when compared to an equivalent-sized conventional building. The only maintainence required
for the tensile structures is regular cleaning.
 Cost Benefits
Most tensile membrane structures have high sun reflectivity and low absorption of sunlight,
thus resulting in less energy used within a building and ultimately reducing electrical energy
costs.
 Code Compliance
Depending on the type of membrane and overall project design, tensile membrane systems
appropriately meet the various associated building code requirements.
 Earthquake Resistant
Lightweight tensile membrane structures bear less building load than traditional roofing
materials and the membrane's elasticity offers further earthquake resistance
 Variety of Membranes
Whether it’s a permanent durable structure that needs to last longer than 30 years, an insulated
membrane system for thermal performance, or a deployable flexible application, there are a
variety of tensile membranes to choose from to meet specific performances.
75
16. REFERENCES
1. Space Structures : Principles and Practice, N. Subramanian, Volume 1,

Multi- Science Pub., 2006
2. European Design Guide for Tensile Surface Structures, Brian Forster Marijke
Mollaert, Vrije Universiteit Brussel. Scientia Vincere Tenebras,
2004.Tensinet
3. Tensioned membrane structures J. Schlaich, R. Bergermann, W. Sobek'

Invited Lecture In The Lass-Congress In Madrid. September 1989
4. Conceptual Design And Analysis Of Membrane Structures,Erica Henrysson

Department Of Applied Mechanics,
Division Of Material And Computational Mechanics.
Chalmers University Of Technology.
5. Horst Berger, Light Structures – Structures of Light, birkhauserverlag, Basel,

Switzerland,1996
6. Environmental behaviour of tensile membrane structures - amiraelnokaly*, John

Chilton and Robin Wilson, School of the Built Environment, University of
Nottingham, 2000
7. Tensile structures, Prof Schierle, American Institute of Architects
8. Is 800-2007general Construction In Steel — Code Of Practice (Third Revision)
9. IS 806-1968 (Reaffirmed 2008): Code of practice for use of steel tubes in general
Building Construction.
10. IS 1161-1998: Code of practice for use of steel tubes for structural purposes
Specification.
11. Membrane Materials And Membrane Structures In Architecture, Di Tian,

The University Of Sheffield, School Of Architecture, September 2011.
12. Tensioned Fabric Shape-Finding, A. Caner1 And R. Hsu,2

P.E., Member, Asce. Journal Of Structural Engineering / September
1999 / 1071.
13. Analysis Of Stress–Strain Of Architect Woven Fabric Strength Under Biaxial

Extensions, Magdi El-Messiry, Shaimaa Youssef Textile Engineering
Department, Faculty Of Engineering, Alexandria University, Egypt Received 9
November 2011.
76
14. Membrane structures: understanding their form.
Prof. Dr. Eng. M. Mollaert Department of Architecture, Vrije University, Brussel.
15. Special Structures: Past, Present, and Future

Richard Bradshaw1; David Campbell2; Mousa Gargari3; Amir Mirmiran4; and
Patrick Tripeny5 Journal Of Structural Engineering / June 2002.
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Ross B. Corotis,2 M. ASCE, and Edwin C. Rossow,3 M. ASCE. J. Struct. Eng.
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David E. Eckmann, AIA, S.E., P.E., Thomas R. Meyer, S.E., and Stephanie J.
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APPLICATIONS OF TENSILE STRUCTURES

Thesis · April 2016

Aniket Tolani Prashant R Barbude

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Aniket Patil Ganesh N Patil

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The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of

Bachelor of Engineering (Civil Engineering)

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINERING

This is to certify that the following students

(Prof P. R. Barbude) (Dr B. S. Asha) (Dr. S. D. Sawarkar)

In partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Bachelor of

I declare that this written submission represents my ideas in my own words

Aniket Tolani Vedang Vadalkar

Aniket Patil Ganesh Patil

Place: Airoli, Navi Mumbai

This synopsis entitled “Application of Tensile Structures” by following

Are approved for the term work in partial fulfilment of requirement of

Signature of Internal Examiner:

Signature of External Examiner:

Place:Airoli, Navi Mumbai.

1.2 Types of Tensile Structures 2

2. MATERIALS AND THEIR TESTING METHODS

3.1 Form Finding 14

4. BOUNDARY SUPPORT AND THEIR TYPES 20

6. DETAILING AND CONNECTIONS

6.3. Point Field Supports 28

6.5. Base Plates 32

7. STRUCTURAL ADVANTAGE OVER CONVENTIONAL SYSTEMS 33

8.1 Literature review 37

9. IMPORTANT STEPS REGARDING DESIGN PROCEDURE 43

10.1 DESIGN LOADING CONDITIONS 45

10.2 DESIGN BASIS AND SAFETY CRITERIA 46

11. FABRICATION INSTALLATION AND MAINTAINENCE 48

12. DESIGN REPORTS OF HAJ HOUSE (MUMBAI)

12.1. DESIGN OF TENSILE ROOF CANOPY 58

12.2. DESIGN OF SPACE FRAME 61

13. DESIGN REPORTS OF CIDCO STADIUM (NASHIK)

13.1. DESIGN OF AN ARCH TRUSS 65

13.2. DESIGN OF SPACE TRUSS 66

13.3. DESIGN OF TENSILE ROOF COVERING 68

14.1. CASE 1 – HAJ HOUSE TENSILE CANOPY 70

14.2. CASE 2 – CIDCO STADIUM ROOF COVERING 72

1. Types of cables – Tensile structures, Prof. Schierle. 2

2. Types of cables – Tensile structures, Prof. Schierle. 2

3. Thane railway station – Internet. 2

4. Haj House – Projects, Tenso Designers. 2

7. Classification of membranes based on their threading

8. Stress-Strain relation and Creep Factor graphs

Surface Structures, Brian Forster MarijkeMollaert. Tensinet. 5

Structures, Brian Forster MarijkeMollaert. Tensinet. 5

11. Strength Dependence -European Design Guide for Tensile Surface

Structures, Brian Forster MarijkeMollaert. Tensinet. 9

Structures, Brian Forster MarijkeMollaert. Tensinet. 10

Brian Forster MarijkeMollaert. Tensinet. 12

14. Prestress Alignment -European Design Guide for Tensile Surface

Structures, Brian Forster MarijkeMollaert. Tensinet. 16

Brian Forster MarijkeMollaert. Tensinet. 17

16. Schematic Form Finding Diagrams -European Design Guide for

Tensile Surface Structures, Brian Forster MarijkeMollaert. Tensinet. 17