多频多星座GNSS精密单点定位模糊度解算 2020

Precise Point Positioning with ambiguity
resolution using multi-frequency multi-

constellation GNSS measurements
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Viet Duong
M.Sc. Geomatics Engineering, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT), Vietnam
School of Science
College of Science, Engineering and Health
RMIT University
March 2020
Declaration
I certify that except where due acknowledgement has been made, the work is that of the author
alone; the work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to qualify for any other
academic award; the content of the thesis is the result of work which has been carried out since
the official commencement date of the approved research program; any editorial work, paid or
unpaid, carried out by a third party is acknowledged; and, ethics procedures and guidelines
have been followed.
I acknowledge the support I have received for my research through the provision of an
Australian Award Scholarship.
Viet Duong
27 March 2020
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Associate Professor Lau N Nguyen from Geomatics Engineering at the
Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (Vietnam) for his tremendous support. His passion
and enthusiasm for the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) have greatly influenced
and inspired me.
I would like to thank Emeritus Professor Chris Rizos for supporting my Australia Awards
Scholarship, which allowed me to study in Australia. Thanks also for providing useful
comments and prompt feedback, which significantly contributed to my research.
I would like to express my utmost gratitude to my supervisor, Associate Professor Dr

Suelynn Choy, for her guidance and support. Her vast knowledge and experience in Geodesy
and GNSS motivated me throughout my four-year candidature.
Next, thanks to my co-supervisors Dr Ken Harima and Dr Safoora Zaminpardaz for their
patience and feedback, and all my colleagues and friends at Surveying and Geospatial Science
for their kind support and friendship.
Finally, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my lovely and talented wife, Anh,
for her deep love, dedicated support, understanding and encouragement. My two awesome
kids, Khoi and Minh, also fill my life with joy and happiness. I further thank my parents for
their love and support throughout my life. Without them, I would not have found the courage
and persistence to finalise this thesis.
- iii -
Abstract
This research aims to improve Precise Point Positioning (PPP) accuracy and solution
convergence time by developing reliable PPP with ambiguity resolution (PPP-AR) methods
and models using multi-frequency multi-Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
measurements. The convergence time is defined as when the position estimates and ambiguity
parameters steadily approach to a defined accuracy level and maintain within the accuracy
level. In particular the work focuses on the development of mathematical models to improve
wide-lane (WL) and narrow-lane (NL or N1) ambiguity resolution methods.
The prospects, effectiveness, as well as challenges in using triple-frequency GNSS

measurements in a PPP model is presented. Specifically, using triple-frequency GPS
measurements from eight Australian GPS stations, the performance of dual- and triple-
frequency PPP has been assessed in the PPP static mode. It is indicated that the use of triple-
frequency GPS-only measurements improves the 3D positioning accuracies as well as shortens
solution convergence times compared with dual-frequency GPS-only PPP.
The benefits of multi-frequency GNSS measurements in PPP-AR are investigated. The

GNSS measurements include GPS L1, L2 and L5 signal; Galileo E1, E5a, E5b and E6 signal;
and BeiDou B1, B2 and B3 signal. It is demonstrated that the quad-frequency Galileo
combination of E1+E5a+E5b+E6 provides the most precise positioning and ambiguity
solutions, and thus outperforms the triple-frequency GPS or BeiDou PPP solutions. Using real
triple- and four-frequency GNSS measurements, it is concluded that the solution convergence
time can be shortened compared with the triple-frequency GPS-only PPP case.
A reliable WL ambiguity resolution method plays a significant role in reducing the

solution convergence time in PPP. An optimal wide-lane ambiguity resolution (WL-AR)
method is found by assessing two different PPP WL-AR methods, namely the geometry-based
and ionospheric-free (GB-IF) linear combination method, and the geometry-free and
ionospheric-free (GF-IF) method. It is concluded that an optimal WL-AR will be selected based
on the ratio between the code and carrier phase measurement noise (𝑅𝑇). Specifically, the GF-
IF WL-AR method should be used when 𝑅𝑇 ≤ 150. However, when 𝑅𝑇 > 150, the GB-IF
method should be selected instead. Depending on 𝑅𝑇 values used, 2 to 10 minutes is required
to confidently resolve the WL ambiguities when using GNSS measurements with one-second
sampling rate.
- iv -
An optimal ionospheric-free linear combination (LC) model for dual- and triple-
frequency PPP, which can accelerate carrier-phase ambiguity and reduce the positioning
solution convergence time, is proposed and investigated. To reduce computational complexity,
a near-optimal LC model for triple-frequency PPP is also proposed. The proposed optimal and
near-optimal LC models for dual- and triple-frequency GNSS PPP are compared with the
uncombined observation (UC) model using both simulated and real GNSS data. It is found that
ambiguity resolution is faster and positioning accuracy is improved using the optimal dual- and
triple-frequency LC model.
A new approach of partial ambiguity resolution method, namely the best integer
equivariant estimator (BIE) using the 𝑡-distribution method (BIE-td), is proposed for fast and
reliable solution convergence time in PPP-AR. This new method is then compared with two
existing ambiguity resolution methods which are the partial ambiguity resolution based-Least‐
squares AMBiguity Decorrelation Adjustment (LAMBDA) method (PAR-Ps) and the iFlex
method proposed by the Trimble Navigation Limited. The results suggest that the iFlex method
outperforms the PAR-Ps method in the sense of minimising the position errors. In addition, the
positioning convergence performance using the BIE-td and iFlex methods is comparable, with
a similar positioning accuracy for both horizontal and vertical coordinate components.
-v-
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
Peer-reviewed journal article
Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Rizos C (2020b) A reliable partial ambiguity resolution approach
for multi-frequency and multi-GNSS PPP. Journal of Geodesy. [Under review].
(Duong et al. 2020b)
Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Laurichesse D, Rizos C (2019a) Assessing the performance of
multi-frequency GPS, Galileo and BeiDou PPP ambiguity resolution. Journal of Spatial
Science:1-18. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14498596.2019.1658652. (Duong et al.
2019a)
Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Laurichesse D, Rizos C (2019b) An assessment of wide-lane
ambiguity resolution methods for multi-frequency multi-GNSS precise point positioning.
Survey Review. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00396265.2019.1634339. (Duong et al.
2019b)
Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Laurichesse D, Rizos C (2019c) An optimal linear combination
model to accelerate PPP convergence using multi-frequency multi-GNSS measurements.
GPS Solutions 23(2):49. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10291-019-0842-2. (Duong et
al. 2019c)
Peer-reviewed conference proceedings
Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Rizos C (2020a) Multi-frequency Multi-GNSS PPP: A
Comparison of Two Ambiguity Resolution Methods. Proc. IGNSS 2020, Sydney,
Australia, 5-7 February, 1-11. (Duong et al. 2020a)
Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Rizos C (2016) Performance of precise point positioning using
current triple-frequency GPS measurements in Australia. Proc. IGNSS 2016,
International Global Navigation Satellite Systems, Sydney, Australia, 6-8 December, 1-
15. (Duong et al. 2016)
Non-peer-reviewed conference proceedings
Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Rizos C (2017b) Performance of precise point positioning using
current multi-frequency and multi-GNSS measurements in Australia. International
Symposium on GNSS (ISGNSS 2017), Hong Kong, 10-13 December, 1-21. [Best Paper
Awards]. (Duong et al. 2017b)
Duong V, Choy S, Harima K, Thompson T (2017a) Accurate GNSS positioning using low-
cost receivers. International Symposium on GNSS (ISGNSS 2017), Hong Kong, 10-13
December. (Duong et al. 2017a)
Duong V, Harima K, Choy S (2018) Performance of precise point positioning using current
triple‐frequency GNSS measurements in Southeast Asian region. Multi‐GNSS Asia
Conference 2018, RMIT Melbourne, Australia, 23‐25 October. (Duong et al. 2018)
- vi -
Table of Contents
Declaration................................................................................................................................ii
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................ iii
Abstract .................................................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS ................................................................................................... vi
Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................vii
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................... ix
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... x
List of Abbreviations .............................................................................................................. xi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem statement................................................................................................................ 6
1.3 Research aim and questions ................................................................................................. 8
1.4 Research scope and approach .............................................................................................. 9
1.5 Thesis outline ....................................................................................................................... 9
CHAPTER 2: PPP PERFORMANCE USING DUAL- AND TRIPLE-FREQUENCY

GPS SIGNALS .................................................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER 3: PPP PERFORMANCE USING MULTI-FREQUENCY MULTI-GNSS

SIGNALS .................................................................................................................... 15
CHAPTER 4: PPP WIDE-LANE AMBIGUITY RESOLUTION METHODS IN

MULTI-FREQUENCY MULTI-GNSS CONTEXTS ........................................................ 16
CHAPTER 5: RAPID CONVERGENCE TIMES OF PPP SOLUTIONS .................. 17
CHAPTER 6: RELIABLE AMBIGUITY RESOLUTION METHODS FOR MULTI-

FREQUENCY MULTI-GNSS PPP ..................................................................................... 18
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................. 19
7.1 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................ 19
- vii -
7.1.1 Performance of triple-frequency GPS PPP .............................................................. 19
7.1.2 Benefits of using multi-frequency and multi-constellation GNSS measurements .. 19
7.1.3 Wide-lane ambiguity resolution methods ................................................................ 20
7.1.4 Linear combination models to accelerate PPP convergence ................................... 21
7.1.5 Reliable ambiguity resolution methods ................................................................... 22
7.2 Recommendations .............................................................................................................. 23
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 26
- viii -
List of Tables
Table 1.1. GPS, Galileo and BeiDou frequencies and wavelengths (Feb 2020, IGS-RINEX-
3.04 (2020))................................................................................................................................ 6
- ix -
List of Figures
Figure 1.1. PPP approach in offshore surveying concepts ........................................................ 1
Figure 1.2. User applications are outside the Network RTK in offshore surveying concepts .. 2
Figure 1.3. Number of triple-frequency GPS+Galileo+BeiDou satellites observed worldwide

on 10 May 2019 at 00:00UT ...................................................................................................... 8
-x-
List of Abbreviations
ADOP Ambiguity Dilution of Precision
BIE Best Integer Equivariant
BIE-td Best integer equivariant estimator using the 𝑡-distribution
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
CNES Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales
CORS Continuously Operating Reference Stations
EWL Extra wide-lane
GB-IF Geometry-based and ionosphere-free
GDOP Geometry Dilution of Precision
GF-IF Geometry-free and ionosphere-free
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite Systems
ILS Integer least-squares
LAMBDA Least-squares AMBiguity Decorrelation Adjustment
LC Linear combination
MGEX Multi-GNSS Experiment
NL Narrow-lane
NRTK Network Real-Time-Kinematic
PAR Partial Ambiguity Resolution
PDF Probability Density Function
PPP Precise Point Positioning
PPP-AR Precise Point Positioning with ambiguity resolution
RMS Root Mean Square
RTCM Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Services
RTK Real-Time-Kinematic
SSR State Space Representation of errors
TTFF Time-To-First-Fix
UC Uncombined signals
WL Wide-lane
WL-AR Wide-lane ambiguity resolution
- xi -
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Precise Point Positioning (PPP) enables high
accuracy point positioning (e.g., centimetre-to-decimetre levels) by using a single receiver and
employing precise orbit and clock corrections from a global network of reference stations.
Introduced by Zumberge et al. (1997), the technique is extensively discussed in the literature.
GNSS satellite corrections obtained from providers, such as the Centre National D'Etudes
Spatiales (CNES) or Trimble RTX, can be delivered to the end-user over internet or via satellite
(see Figure 1.1). PPP combines both undifferenced pseudo-range and carrier-phase
measurements, compared with standard point positioning service, which employs only pseudo-
range measurements.
Figure 1.1. PPP approach in offshore surveying concepts
Unlike relative positioning such as Real-Time-Kinematic (RTK) or Network Real-Time-

Kinematic (NRTK) techniques, which applies the double-differenced form, between two
-1-
receivers and two satellites, PPP only requires one GNSS receiver for positioning and a fairly
sparse network (thousands of km apart would suffice) of Continuously Operating Reference
Stations (CORS) to generate precise satellite orbits and clocks. This makes PPP an attractive
alternative where RTK coverage is not available, such as offshore surveying (see Figure 1.2).
Further, PPP is not constrained by the baseline length between CORS stations to produce high
accuracy positioning. Consequently, there is a reduction in labour and equipment costs,
computational burden and simplified operational logistics (Rizos et al. 2012). The technique
also provides a positioning solution in a dynamic, global reference frame, such as the
International Terrestrial Reference Frame (Altamimi et al. 2011), negating local distortions
associated with differential positioning techniques when local coordinates are used at the
CORS.
Ship
Oil-Platform
Offshore
Ref station
RTK network on land
Figure 1.2. User applications are outside the Network RTK in offshore surveying concepts
The availability of accurate atmospheric delay corrections is a crucial element in instantaneous

PPP convergence. Only a dense well-distributed CORS infrastructure similar to NRTK can
provide such a high accuracy requirement of corrections. Further, the attractiveness of PPP
relies on the State Space Representation of errors (SSR) determined from real-time GNSS
networks (Collins et al. 2012). The original concept of PPP was a precise positioning technique
-2-
that worked solely on SSR corrections obtaining from a sparse global network of reference
stations. In fact, in regions where a dense well-distributed CORS infrastructure exists, RTK-
like performance could be expected. Moreover, improved modelling of atmospheric delay
errors could extend CORS distancing from tens to hundreds of kilometres. Fixed-PPP solutions
would then be possible in worldwide. Nevertheless, if SSR-RTK was expanded to a global
scale without a dense CORS network, performance would be equivalent to PPP (Choy et al.
2016; Collins et al. 2012).
Although PPP and RTK are mutually exclusive, the utility of these two techniques could
be merged. The terminology “PPP-RTK” was first described by Wübbena et al. (2005) to
emphasise relation of two techniques. As mentioned earlier, PPP can offer global solutions
without the requirements of local/regional reference networks, whereas RTK/NRTK is a
dominant precise positioning technique when a dense local/regional GNSS infrastructure is
already established. Choy et al. (2016) stated that integration of these two techniques would
lead to improved position accuracy and convergence time. In addition, rapid ambiguity fixing
performance is currently dependent on the extent and density of CORS networks which is
required for generating accurate atmospheric information.
While metre-level positioning accuracy is sufficient for most applications, there are many
uses of GNSS where accuracy of several centimetres to decimetres are required, such as
geophysical monitoring, structural monitoring, machine control, surveying and various
scientific tasks. For safety-critical and high-precision applications, such as vehicle automation,
PPP can be used with low-cost hardware, both in parallel or together with RTK, for reliability
and independence. It is anticipated that these two positioning techniques will yet likely coexist
for many years. RTK will continue to deliver high-accuracy instantaneous positioning for
GNSS users, while PPP will complement RTK by providing the necessary flexibility,
scalability and efficiency to meet the demand of future positioning, navigation and timing
applications. The future of PPP continues to be bright.
To obtain global centimeter-level accuracy, standard PPP with “float ambiguities”

usually requires a long convergence time, often measured in tens of minutes or even hours. In
the ambiguity-float PPP technique, the carrier phase ambiguity is a combination of the integer
ambiguity term and the satellite and receiver hardware biases, thus resulting in the phase
ambiguity term being a real-valued quantity. This holds true for any single receiver positioning
using carrier phase measurements, this explains why standard PPP requires a long-period
convergence time to reliably estimate these float ambiguities (Choy et al. 2016; Gabor and
-3-
Nerem 2002). Further, many error sources could be eliminated or reduced by applying the
relative positioning, but the errors exist in the standard PPP model and must be considered in
the data processing. For example, this technique has to use reliability modelling of GNSS
systematic errors (i.e., receiver and satellite antenna offsets, phase wind-up, site displacement
effects) as well as precise information of the satellite orbits, satellite clocks and signal biases
to make accurate estimates of the user position (Kouba 2009; Rizos et al. 2012; Zumberge et
al. 1997).
Since 2007, significant efforts from GNSS researchers have been making progress on the
challenge of resolving carrier phase ambiguities in PPP. In general, two methods have been
proposed in the literature: the ‘‘Uncalibrated Hardware Delays’’ method (Bertiger et al. 2010;
Ge et al. 2008); and the ‘‘Integer-Recovery-Clocks’’ (Laurichesse et al. 2009) or ‘‘Decoupled
Clock Model’’ (Collins 2008) methods. It has been demonstrated that the ambiguity-fixed
position estimates from these methods are theoretically equivalent (Geng et al. 2010b; Shi
2012; Teunissen and Khodabandeh 2014). The term ‘‘PPP with ambiguity resolution (PPP-
AR)’’ is widely used in the GNSS community to describe PPP with phase ambiguities resolved.
Nevertheless, the fixed-PPP solutions were not improved significantly compared with the float-
PPP solutions as shown by Choy et al. (2016).
Dual-frequency GPS measurement is often used to further enhance PPP-AR performance

by reducing the ambiguity convergence time and improving positioning accuracy. However, it
is suggested that tens of minutes (15–30 min) or even more are required for reliable PPP-AR
(Geng et al. 2011; Loyer et al. 2012). This is because smoothing noisy Melbourne-Wubbena
combination measurements (Melbourne 1985; Wubbena 1985) for wide-lane ambiguity
resolution (WL-AR) requires around 20 minutes, and sufficiently precise narrow-lane (NL or
N1) ambiguity estimates cannot be obtained using less than 15 minutes of measurements (Geng
et al. 2011). Nevertheless, instantaneous centimetre-level accuracy PPP can be achieved when
PPP users have precise atmospheric information (e.g., in the form of tropospheric and
ionospheric delays) (Laurichesse and Banville 2018). However, a very dense network of
reference stations is required to calculate precise atmospheric corrections. As a result,
instantaneous PPP was downgraded to a regional service, and PPP users restricted to coverage
by the augmentation network (Geng et al. 2010a; Odijk et al. 2012; Zhang et al. 2011).
Significant investment and resources have been allocated to upgrade and modernise the
global and regional navigation satellite systems. For example, the GPS consists of 32 Medium
Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites and used for positioning since 1980s. The BeiDou constellation
-4-
(formerly known as COMPASS) now provides signal coverage in the Asia-Pacific region. In
December 2019, the nominal number of 24 MEO BeiDou satellites was reached. The Galileo
currently has 22 operational satellites, which can provide healthy signals and valid navigation
messages. The Russian “Global’naya Navigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema” (GLONASS)
currently has reached full operational capability with 24 satellites in constellation (IAC 2020).
The Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) currently comprises three satellites in an inclined
geosynchronous orbit and one satellite in geostationary orbit. The system is designed to enable
users to receive QZSS signals from a high elevation angle in East Asia and Japan (MGEX
2020). Further, next-generation GNSS, such as the modernised GPS, Galileo, BeiDou and
QZSS satellites, are already transmitting a third signal for positioning; e.g., the 12 GPS Block
IIF satellites transmit the L5 signal (NAVCEN 2020).
Moreover, the first GPS Block III was launched on 23 December 2018, and it is expected
that more GPS Block III satellites will be launched in the coming years. In 2003, the
GLONASS modernization began with the launch of second generation of satellites, known as
GLONASS-M. The following generation of satellites, GLONASS-K, includes, for the first
time, code-division-multiple-access (CDMA) signals accompanying the legacy frequency-
domain-multiple-access (FDMA) signals (GLONASS 2020). Since 2011, the last seven
satellites of the GLONASS-M series together with all the satellites of the GLONASS-K series
will be capable of transmitting CDMA signals on the L3 frequency (Montenbruck et al. 2015).
In November 2017, the BeiDou constellation began a new phase of its development with the
launch of the BeiDou-3S satellites, offering new signals compatible with the GPS L1/L5 bands.
The European Galileo satellites permanently transmit three independent signals, named E1, E5
and E6. The E5 signal is further sub-divided into signals denoted E5a and E5b. Thus, the
Galileo system is capable of transmitting signals on five frequencies. In March 2018, the
European Union began its Commercial Service (CS), offering a signal and correction stream
for the “CS high accuracy” service at no cost. Consequently, the E6 signal is now available on
14 satellites and can be tracked by modern GNSS receivers (GSC-EUROPA 2020). Table 1.1
depicts the frequency of open GNSS signals as of February 2020.
-5-
Table 1.1. GPS, Galileo and BeiDou frequencies and wavelengths (Feb 2020, IGS-RINEX-
3.04 (2020))
Satellite systems Signal Frequency (MHz) Wavelength (cm)
L1 1575.42 19.03
GPS L2 1227.60 24.42
L5 1176.45 25.48
E1 1575.42 19.03
E5a 1176.45 25.48
Galileo E5b 1207.14 24.83
E5 1191.795 25.15
E6 1278.75 23.44
B1 1561.098 19.20
BeiDou-2 B2 1207.14 24.83
B3 1268.52 23.63
G1a 1600.995 18.73
GLONASS-K
G2a 1248.06 24.02
(CDMA)
G3 1202.025 24.94
1.2 Problem statement
The combination of multi-constellation and multi-frequency GNSS data for real-time PPP has
not been fully explored in the literature. One of the main reasons is the limited and unbalanced
number of triple-frequency GNSS satellites in view at a particular station (see Figure 1.3).
Countries in the Asia-Pacific region, such as Australia, can track more than fifteen triple-
frequency GNSS satellites in view. This number is significantly higher than any other area in
the world. An experiment with static processing of actual data was carried out by Laurichesse
(2015); however, it was limited by the geographical location of the GNSS stations (mainly
conducted at one CORS station in Europe) and the observation length (only about one-hour in
length).
Further investigations in utilising multi-frequency and multi-constellation GNSS (multi-

GNSS) measurements together with the support of external atmospheric model (including
ionospheric and tropospheric delay) have been conducted recently; see for example
Laurichesse and Blot (2016a) or Aggrey and Bisnath (2019). However, accurate atmospheric
-6-
information may not be available for areas with a low density of CORS. Hence, instantaneous
convergence PPP may not be achieved over a wide area or on a global scale (Banville et al.
2014; Nadarajah et al. 2018; Odijk et al. 2017a).
The use of multi-frequency and multi-constellation GNSS measurements is expected to

improve the reliability of the PPP WL and NL integer ambiguity resolution as compared to
dual-frequency measurements. In fact, the linear combination between frequencies on GNSS
system can create several extra-wide lanes (EWL) with very long wavelengths, which
significantly improve triple-frequency PPP WL integer ambiguity resolution (Duong et al.
2019a; Duong et al. 2017b; Geng and Bock 2013; Laurichesse 2012; Li et al. 2013). However,
the performance of WL ambiguity resolution method (WL-AR) is usually ignored in the
literature and is assumed to have less impact on the positioning accuracy. In addition, an
optimal ionospheric-free linear combination (LC) model for dual- and triple-frequency PPP
NL integer ambiguity resolution, which can accelerate carrier-phase ambiguity and reduce the
positioning solution convergence time, has not been fully investigated. In this context, an
optimal LC means that it is able to provide the shortest positioning solution convergence time
and the highest possible success rates.
Multi-frequency and multi-GNSS measurements bring both opportunities and

challenges. One challenge is that often all carrier-phase ambiguities cannot be reliably fixed.
This is because multi-GNSS, multi-frequency observations introduce more ambiguities, and
the probability of correct integer estimation (also known as the “success rate”) may decrease
when more ambiguities are involved (Teunissen et al. 1999). Hence, partial ambiguity
resolution (PAR) methods have been developed to improve the reliability of ambiguity
resolution by attempting to fix a subset of ambiguities. Several PAR approaches, mainly
differing by criteria, have been proposed in the literature (Cao et al. 2007; Dai et al. 2007;
Duong et al. 2019b; Li et al. 2010; Li and Zhang 2015; Parkins 2011; Takasu and Yasuda 2010;
Teunissen et al. 1999; Verhagen et al. 2011; Wang and Feng 2013). However, improvement in
convergence time using different ambiguity resolution methods has not been investigated in
detail.
-7-
Figure 1.3. Number of triple-frequency GPS+Galileo+BeiDou satellites observed worldwide
on 10 May 2019 at 00:00UT
1.3 Research aim and questions
This research aims to improve PPP accuracy and solution convergence time by developing
reliable PPP-AR methods and models using multi-frequency multi-GNSS measurements. It is
believed that high accuracy point positioning using a multi-frequency and multi-constellation
receiver could help many GNSS applications. For example, mining, airborne survey,
agriculture and offshore oil/gas positioning, among others. Moreover, the use of multi-
frequency and multi-GNSS measurements can protect users from satellite outages or system
failures, which is particularly important in safety-of-life applications such as autonomous
landing, precise information flying, and autonomous car navigation. Hence, this thesis provides
relevant insights into the performance of multi-frequency and multi-GNSS PPP applications
that require centimetre-level positioning accuracy.
To achieve the research aim, the following research questions are formulated:
1. What is the current performance of triple-frequency PPP in terms of convergence

times and positioning accuracy?
2. What are the benefits of using multi-constellation and multi-frequency GNSS
measurements in a PPP model?
3. What is the optimal linear combination of GNSS measurements for resolving WL
ambiguities in triple-frequency GNSS?
4. What methods can be used to improve the convergence times of PPP NL
ambiguities?
-8-
5. Which ambiguity resolution methods can be used to validate the correctness of PPP
NL ambiguities in the context of multi-GNSS measurements?
1.4 Research scope and approach
The scope of this research is focused on the GPS, Galileo and BeiDou systems because these
constellations have the highest number of satellites transmitting a third frequency
(Montenbruck and Steigenberger 2015). Further, these satellite systems are all based on Code
Division Multiple Access (CDMA) signal modulations. The benefit of combining different
systems improves satellite geometry and redundancy (the number of measurements minus the
numbers of estimable unknowns), and this provides more accurate and reliable GNSS receiver
positioning performance. The selected CORS are well distributed and mainly comprise IGS
Multi-GNSS Experiment (MGEX) stations.
Further, IGS offers comprehensive products for multi-GNSS measurement processing,

including precise orbits and clocks, broadcast ephemerides, differential code biases and
satellite code and phase biases. These can facilitate a significant improvement in user
positioning accuracy over time. For example, since 15 September 2014, CLK93, a real-time
stream provided by CNES (CLK93 2020), offers multi-GNSS products including satellite orbit,
clock, code and phase bias) for real-time PPP-AR (Laurichesse 2015). Further, CLK93 is
provided in Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Services (RTCM) and SSR messages.
It is anticipated these infrastructure systems could enable rapid ambiguity resolution and short
convergence times for user-based multi-GNSS PPP solutions.
Regarding the core research processing platform, an open source RTKLIB code (Takasu
2013) and a MATLAB-based GNSS PPP software package are used with some modifications
to suit the specific requirements of this investigation, including streaming and reading GNSS
data and corrections. Further, some algorithms for dual- triple-frequency multi-constellation
GNSS PPP are developed and implemented on the MATLAB platform.
1.5 Thesis outline
This PhD thesis with publications investigates the benefits of triple-frequency multi-
constellation GNSS PPP and its effects on estimated positioning solutions. It comprises six
first author peer-reviewed publications supported by three first author non-peer-reviewed
-9-
publications. Each of the following chapters has been drawn from these publications or
submitted to journals or conference proceedings. The last chapter (Chapter 7) presents the
thesis conclusion as a synthesis of the component studies as a collective work. Suggestions for
future studies are also included.
Chapter 2: PPP Performance using dual- and triple -frequency GPS signals
This chapter draws material from the following peer-reviewed publication:
• Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Rizos C (2016) Performance of precise point positioning

using current triple-frequency GPS measurements in Australia. Proc. IGNSS 2016,
International Global Navigation Satellite Systems, Sydney, Australia, 6-8 December,
1-15.
The first contribution of this research is an in-depth understanding of the contributions of triple-
frequency PPP using real GPS-only measurements from eight Australian CORS. The
evaluation criteria include solution accuracy and ambiguity resolution convergence behaviour.
To the author’s knowledge, this is one of the few comprehensive and applied research
investigations using real GPS data from many CORS. It shows that the triple-frequency GPS
signal significantly improves time-to-first-fix (TTFF) ambiguity resolution and convergence
time compared with dual-frequency GPS. The study is based on data sets collected from
different receivers and observation site environments. The mixed model derived from this
investigation, which comprises dual- and triple frequency GPS measurements, suggests the
best possible triple-frequency PPP solutions.
Chapter 3: PPP Performance using multi-frequency multi-GNSS signals
This chapter draws material from the following publication:
• Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Laurichesse D, Rizos C (2019a) Assessing the

performance of multi-frequency GPS, Galileo and BeiDou PPP ambiguity resolution.
Journal of Spatial Science:1-18. doi:
https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14498596.2019.1658652.
• Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Rizos C (2017b) Performance of Precise Point
Positioning using current multi-frequency and multi-GNSS measurements in Australia.
- 10 -
International Symposium on GNSS (ISGNSS 2017), Hong Kong, 10-13 December
[Best Paper Awards].
The thesis also investigates the benefits of using multi-frequency (triple- and quad-frequency)
and multi-constellation GNSS (GPS+Galileo+BeiDou), which is its second contribution. The
study extends current knowledge by evaluating the feasibility of multi-frequency and multi-
GNSS PPP-AR to achieve high accuracy point positioning. Seventeen GNSS stations
worldwide are selected for evaluation purposes. For the PPP-AR, the CLK93 product provides
corrections and recovers the integer nature of GNSS carrier-phase measurements. The chapter
provides the results of estimated positioning solutions and TTFF using different frequencies
and constellations.
Chapter 4: PPP wide-lane ambiguity resolution methods in multi-frequency multi-

constellation contexts
• Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Laurichesse D, Rizos C (2019b) An assessment of wide-

lane ambiguity resolution methods for multi-frequency multi-GNSS precise point
positioning. Survey Review. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00396265.2019.1634339.
Using reliable methods for resolving WL ambiguities will reduce solution convergence time in
PPP-AR. This is because the PPP-AR technique relies on the correctness of WL ambiguities to
resolve NL ambiguities (Geng et al. 2018; Li et al. 2013). In the third contribution, an optimal
PPP WL ambiguity resolution method, in the sense of providing highest possible success rate
and shorter TTFF, is proposed by assessing the performance of two different WL ambiguity
resolution methods. These WL ambiguity resolution methods are geometry-free and
ionosphere-free (GF-IF) and geometry-based and ionosphere-free (GB-IF). The analysis
comprises ambiguity success rates and the achievable TTFF. The outcome of this evaluation
provides an optimal method for resolving PPP WL ambiguities.
- 11 -
Chapter 5: Rapid convergence times of PPP solutions
• Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Laurichesse D, Rizos C (2019c) An optimal linear

combination model to accelerate PPP convergence using multi-frequency multi-GNSS
measurements. GPS Solutions 23(2):49. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10291-019-
0842-2.
This chapter investigates ways of improving PPP NL ambiguity estimates using multi-
frequency and multi-GNSS signals and is the fourth contribution. It presents possible LC
models to speed PPP NL solution convergence times. The study proposes an optimal linear
combination model to accelerate ambiguity resolution PPP convergence using multi-frequency
and multi-GNSS measurements. Although there are many papers written about “optimal” linear
combinations (LC) of observations (Cocard et al. 2008; Feng 2008; Wang and Rothacher
2013), optimality can be defined using several criteria, such as noise reduction, ionospheric
delay reduction, or wavelength amplification. However, the real benefit of linear combinations
is reducing the number of parameters to be estimated (Teunissen and Khodabandeh 2014). The
current study provides practical LC models for dual- and triple-frequency PPP, which can
accelerate carrier-phase ambiguity resolution and decrease position solution convergence time.
Further, it determines a necessary and sufficient condition for a combination operator matrix
that can eliminate the first-order ionospheric component to obtain the optimal LC model for
dual- and triple-frequency PPP.
Chapter 6: Reliable ambiguity resolution methods for multi-frequency multi-GNSS PPP
• Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Rizos C (2020b) A reliable partial ambiguity resolution

approach for multi-frequency and multi-GNSS PPP. Journal of Geodesy. [Under
review].
• Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Rizos C (2020a) Multi-frequency Multi-GNSS PPP: A
comparison of two ambiguity resolution methods. Proc. IGNSS 2020, Sydney,
Australia, 5-7 February, 1-11.
Convergence times of PPP solutions are dependent on the correctness of carrier-phase

ambiguities in GNSS measurements. Hence, the fifth contribution investigates a reliable
- 12 -
ambiguity resolution method for fast PPP convergence comprising three ambiguity resolution
methods: the partial ambiguity resolution based LAMBDA (Least-squares AMBiguity
Decorrelation Adjustment) (Teunissen 1993) method (PAR-Ps); the iFlex method proposed by
Trimble Navigation Limited (Talbot and Vollath 2013; Vollath 2014; Vollath and Talbot
2013); and the best integer equivariant estimator (described in Teunissen (2003)) using the 𝑡-
distribution (BIE-td). It is envisaged that the findings could potentially accelerate PPP-AR
using multi-frequency and multi-GNSS carrier-phase measurements to achieve high accuracy
point positions.
- 13 -
CHAPTER 2: PPP PERFORMANCE USING DUAL-
AND TRIPLE-FREQUENCY GPS SIGNALS
This chapter draws material from the following peer-reviewed publication:
[Copyrighted material omitted] Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Rizos C (2016) Performance of

precise point positioning using current triple-frequency GPS measurements in Australia. Proc.
IGNSS 2016, International Global Navigation Satellite Systems, Sydney, Australia, 6-8
December, 1-15. http://www.ignss2016.unsw.edu.au/2016-proceedings
- 14 -
CHAPTER 3: PPP PERFORMANCE USING MULTI-
FREQUENCY MULTI-GNSS SIGNALS
This chapter draws material from the following publications:
[Copyrighted material omitted] Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Laurichesse D, Rizos C (2019a)

Assessing the performance of multi-frequency GPS, Galileo and BeiDou PPP ambiguity
resolution. Journal of Spatial Science:1-18. doi:
https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14498596.2019.1658652.
[Copyrighted material omitted] Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Rizos C (2017b) Performance

of precise point positioning using current multi-frequency and multi-GNSS measurements in
Australia. International Symposium on GNSS (ISGNSS 2017), Hong Kong, 10-13 December,
1-21. [Best Paper Awards]. http://event.lsgi.polyu.edu.hk/ISGNSS2017/awards.html
- 15 -
CHAPTER 4: PPP WIDE-LANE AMBIGUITY
RESOLUTION METHODS IN MULTI-FREQUENCY
MULTI-GNSS CONTEXTS
[Copyrighted material omitted] Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Laurichesse D, Rizos C (2019b)

An assessment of wide-lane ambiguity resolution methods for multi-frequency multi-GNSS
precise point positioning. Survey Review. doi:
https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00396265.2019.1634339.
- 16 -
CHAPTER 5: RAPID CONVERGENCE TIMES OF PPP
SOLUTIONS
[Copyrighted material omitted] Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Laurichesse D, Rizos C (2019c)

An optimal linear combination model to accelerate PPP convergence using multi-frequency
multi-GNSS measurements. GPS Solutions 23(2):49. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10291-
019-0842-2.
- 17 -
CHAPTER 6:RELIABLE AMBIGUITY RESOLUTION
METHODS FOR MULTI-FREQUENCY MULTI-GNSS
PPP
This chapter draws material from the following publications:
[Copyrighted material omitted] Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Rizos C (2020b) A reliable

partial ambiguity resolution approach for multi-frequency and multi-GNSS PPP. Journal of
Geodesy. [Under review]. https://www.springer.com/journal/190
[Copyrighted material omitted] Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Rizos C (2020a) Multi-

frequency Multi-GNSS PPP: A comparison of two ambiguity resolution methods. Proc. IGNSS
2020, Sydney, Australia, 5-7 February, 1-11. http://www.ignss2020.unsw.edu.au/paper-
proceedings
- 18 -
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 Conclusions
The aim of this research was to improve the positioning accuracy and the solution convergence
time of PPP by developing reliable PPP-AR methods and models using multi-frequency multi-
GNSS measurements. The contributions of the research can be summarised as follows:
7.1.1 Performance of triple-frequency GPS PPP
What is the current performance of triple-frequency PPP in terms of convergence times

and positioning accuracy?
A comprehensive study was undertaken to examine the benefits of using triple-frequency GPS
measurements from eight Australian GPS stations in a PPP model. It was found that the average
time required by the triple-frequency PPP with ambiguity solution to achieve 10cm positioning
accuracy was approximately 10 minutes. Further, triple-frequency measurements could
improve float ambiguity positioning accuracy and shorten convergence time by an average of
5 minutes compared with dual-frequency GPS PPP. The ambiguity fixing success rate was also
increased by 10% when using triple-frequency measurements, thereby improving estimated
positioning accuracy.
7.1.2 Benefits of using multi-frequency and multi-constellation GNSS measurements
What are the benefits of using multi-constellation and multi-frequency GNSS

measurements in a PPP model?
Modern GNSS satellites offer additional signal frequencies, which reduces convergence time
and increases the PPP fixing success rate. An investigation using multi-frequency multi-
constellation GNSS measurements compared PPP-AR solutions of four different multi-
frequency single/multi-GNSS configurations based on the UC model. Numerical analysis
indicated that the four-frequency Galileo combination of E1+E5a+E5b+E6 signals provided
the lowest variance for both geometric and ambiguity terms, and thus outperformed the triple-
frequency GPS and BeiDou PPP solutions. In kinematic tests using real triple- and four-
- 19 -
frequency GNSS measurements, the solution convergence time was reduced by an average of
5 minutes compared with the triple-frequency GPS-only PPP case. Moreover, an average TTFF
of 4 minutes with a fixing success rate of 99% was achieved for the triple- and four-frequency
UC model. Compared with the triple-frequency GPS-only approach, the average fixing rate for
PPP-AR using four-frequency signals was increased by at least 15% in the first 5 minutes.
7.1.3 Wide-lane ambiguity resolution methods
What is the optimal linear combination of GNSS measurements for resolving WL

ambiguities in triple-frequency GNSS?
Additional signal frequencies from GNSS satellites would facilitate various linear
combinations for the PPP positioning model, thereby improving the TTFF for WL-AR and
shortening solution convergence time. Hence, the identification and recommendation of an
“optimal” (shorter TTFF and ambiguity resolution convergence) wide-lane ambiguity
resolution method for multi-frequency multi-GNSS PPP was investigated. The performance of
a triple-frequency multi-constellation PPP WL-AR based on the GF-IF and the GB-IF methods
was assessed. In the case of the GB-IF method, a triple-frequency LC with longer wavelength
was investigated. To constrain the WL integer ambiguity vector, an optimal triple-frequency
code measurement with minimal measurement noise was analysed. In the case of the GF-IF
method, many optimal linear combinations were investigated with different code and carrier-
phase measurement noise ratio assumptions.
The performance of the two methods using simulated data and real triple-frequency
multi-constellation GNSS measurements was studied. The findings are summarised as follows.
First, the selection of an optimal GF-IF WL-AR LC was dependent on the ratio between the
code and carrier-phase measurement noises (𝑅𝑇). Second, it was possible to determine the
relations between the satellite geometry and the WL ambiguity variance. Further, simulation
results showed that the ambiguity variance of the GF-IF method was smaller than the GB-IF
method when a ratio of 50 and 100 was assumed. However, the GB-IF WL-AR method with
multi-frequency GNSS satellites can provide better performance compared with the GF-IF
WL-AR when 𝑅𝑇 > 150.
To validate the simulation results, experimental results using real measurements

confirmed that the GF-IF WL-AR method was faster than the GB-IF WL-AR method when
𝑅𝑇 < 150, with an average 87% of GF-IF sessions having shorter TTFF. Moreover, the GF-
- 20 -
IF method had higher overall fixing rates and a higher number of paired satellite ambiguities
fixed than the GB-IF method. After reaching the stable WL-AR fixed rate of 90%, the GB-IF
method had a slightly higher fixing rate (2-5%) than the GF-IF method. When 𝑅𝑇 ≥ 300 (poor
code variance), neither method could obtain a fixed solution after the first 10 minutes. It is
envisaged that additional GNSS satellites along with improved accuracy of the correction
products (i.e., satellite clocks, orbits and satellite phase biases) could further enhance the
performance of PPP GB-IF WL-AR. Nevertheless, minimising noise in the code measurements
would improve the performance of the GF-IF WL method.
7.1.4 Linear combination models to accelerate PPP convergence
What methods can be used to improve the convergence times of PPP NL ambiguities?
Multi-frequency multi-constellation GNSS offers additional signal frequencies and satellites,

which facilitate a variety of LCs of measurements for fixed ambiguity PPP. An optimal LC
model designed to improve narrow-lane ambiguity resolution (NL-AR) TTFF and hence,
shorten solution convergence time, was proposed. The performance of triple-frequency multi-
constellation GPS+Galileo+BeiDou NL-AR, based on the uncombined (UC) and the LC PPP
models, was assessed. To constrain the NL phase ambiguity vector, several LC models for
dual- and triple-frequency measurements with minimal measurement noise and longer
wavelength were studied.
The performance of seven different UC and LC models using real triple-frequency and
multi-constellation GNSS measurements was evaluated. The findings are summarised as
follows. First, the equivalence of mathematical forms between the UC and LC models was
derived. The optimal LC models for dual- and triple-frequency signals were proposed, and
these models derived from mathematical relations between the UC and LC models. Further,
near-optimal LC models with four and three sets of LCs for the triple-frequency case were
proposed to reduce computational complexity. Second, numerical analysis showed that under
certain constraints (e.g. null space and full column rank), the proposed LC models were
identical to the UC model. Further, that compared with the UC model and the proposed LC
models, the current LC models for dual- and triple-frequency were not optimal. Third, in both
the numerical analysis and the kinematic test using GNSS measurements, the performance of
the proposed LC models was identical to the UC in terms of position accuracy, NL ambiguity
fixing success rate and solutions TTFF. It also outperformed current LC models. Notably, due
- 21 -
to significantly lower variances and better performances in all criteria, the near-optimal LC
models even outperformed LC models proposed by Li et al. (2013).
Numerical results showed that the phase ambiguity resolution using triple-frequency
measurements could be faster, being 8.6, 3.3 and 6.8 times compared with dual-frequency
signals for GPS, Galileo and BeiDou, respectively. Moreover, triple-frequency GNSS
measurements improve positioning accuracy by 2.9, 1.8 and 2.6 times for GPS, Galileo and
BeiDou, respectively. Regarding convergence time in the kinematic tests, triple-frequency
multi-GNSS measurements can shorten solution convergence time by an average of 4 minutes
compared with dual-frequency multi-GNSS PPP cases. Further, an average TTFF of 10
minutes with a fixing success rate 95% was achieved for the triple-frequency LC model in
kinematic mode. Compared with the dual-frequency approach, the average fixing rate in PPP-
AR using triple-frequency was increased by 15% in the first 5 minutes. This confirms that the
proposed triple-frequency LC model can accelerate the PPP NL solution.
7.1.5 Reliable ambiguity resolution methods
Which ambiguity resolution methods can be used to validate the correctness of PPP NL
ambiguities in the context of multi-GNSS measurements?
To improve the accuracy of GNSS receiver position solutions, a reliable ambiguity resolution
in multi-frequency multi-GNSS scenarios is critical. Thus, a new approach of partial ambiguity
resolution, which is the best integer equivariant estimator using the 𝑡-distribution (BIE-td)
method, was proposed. Next, an assessment of two current ambiguity resolution methods was
conducted to determine a fast PPP solution convergence time. The two ambiguity resolution
methods were the partial ambiguity resolution-based LAMBDA method (PAR-Ps) and the
iFlex method proposed by the Trimble Navigation Limited. Finally, a more reliable method to
select integer candidates was suggested, which helped to avoid using empirical values which
were not mathematically rigorous. The method was based on the differences of the unknown
parameters of interest (i.e., receiver’s coordinates) determined at two consecutive processing
steps. If the differences over two consecutive steps were smaller than a threshold of 0.1mm,
the processing calculation was terminated.
The study demonstrated that the iFlex method outperformed the PAR-Ps method in the
sense of minimising position errors in a simulated kinematic test. Compared with the PAR-Ps
method for the 99th percentile of errors, the iFlex method had shortened the convergence time
- 22 -
to about 10 minutes. Further, without applying dynamic constraints on all parameters except
that the ambiguities were estimated as constants, the BIE-td and the iFlex methods had similar
positioning accuracy for both horizontal and vertical position components. In other words, it is
anticipated that performance in terms of ambiguity resolution capability in both the BIE-td and
iFlex methods is similar in real-time GNSS applications.
7.2 Recommendations
The PPP-AR solutions using multi-frequency multi-GNSS measurements demonstrated

promising results in terms of reducing convergence time and providing high accuracy point
positioning. The thesis examined several aspects of multi-frequency multi-GNSS PPP, which
could potentially improve solution convergence time. There are several promising future
research topics in multi-frequency multi-GNSS PPP:
• Quality control. Dealing with carrier-phase measurements, typically in real-time

kinematic applications, requires reliable quality control algorithms. These include cycle
slip detection and correction and multipath reduction. It is strongly recommended to
undertake an in-depth investigation into quality control algorithms. For instance, the
GNSS data should be first screened for outliers using fault detection and identification
methods (e.g. cycle slips, high multipath or under foliage environment).
• Atmospheric effects. The atmospheric delay (i.e., ionospheric and tropospheric
effects) remains a significant limiting factor in enabling rapid to instantaneous cm-level
positioning in PPP. Therefore, any improvement in the atmospheric error mitigation
methods will be of benefits to real-time PPP users. Recommended work includes
improving the latency and accuracy of the ionospheric modelling and thus corrections.
• Future generation GNSS systems and modernisations. With the emergence of new
GNSS constellations, like the modernised GPS (block IIF and III satellites), Galileo,
BeiDou (BDS-3) and even GLONASS, it will be interesting to investigate the possible
signal combinations to enhance the performance of both dual- and single-frequency
PPP. Further, the simulated results have shown that once the EWL and WL are fixed,
the triple-frequency only measurements have increased accuracy by 2.9, 1.8 and 2.6
times compared to dual-frequency only measurements for GPS, Galileo and BeiDou
(see Error! Reference source not found., Chapter 5). Due to limited number of triple-
frequency GNSS satellites at present and at specific location, those simulated results
- 23 -
are not real representation of triple-frequency PPP performance. Thus, future research
should be continued as more triple-frequency GNSS satellites become available to
verify the simulated results.
• Precise correction products for new GNSS satellite signals. It is strongly
recommended to improve the accuracy of PPP correction products for new GNSS
satellite signals. Those products include satellite clocks, phase centre offset and
variation, code and phase biases. The increasing number of GNSS satellites and signals
(e.g., third frequency on GPS, signals from GPS Block III, BeiDou-3 or GLONASS-
K), means that the performance of PPP-AR could be improved even further; and
instantaneous PPP-AR, a reality.
• Adopting a combined IGS state-space representation (IGS-SSR) for correction
transmission to enable PPP-AR. Several IGS analysis centres are generating PPP-AR
products (including satellite orbit, clock and bias corrections). For example, Natural
Resources Canada (NRCan), Center for Orbit Determination in Europe (CODE), Centre
National d’Études Spatiales (CNES) and Wuhan University (WHU). Users have many
options in terms of selecting state-space representation correction solutions. It is
recommended that to obtain a more reliable solution, an in-depth investigation into how
to combine SSR corrections from multiple sources or analysis centres be conducted.
• Stochastic model. It is recommended that the variance-covariance matrix of satellite
corrections (orbit, clock and bias) from each IGS analysis centre be provided.
Alternatively, the user equivalent range error (UERE) may also be used to combine the
errors in the satellite’s orbit, clock and biases, and projected in the satellite-user
direction. Satellite’s error information together with GNSS measurement errors are
necessary to obtain a realistic stochastic model for PPP-AR procedures. More
importantly, to improve stochastic modelling, it is recommended to model the time-
correlated errors in the PPP filter such as the ionospheric delay and multipath.
• Average computational time for uncombined observation and an optimal linear
combination method. The advantages of using uncombined observation and linear
combination models have been discussed in Chapter 5. However, the computational
performance in practice for using the uncombined observations method is not yet clear.
Therefore, future research in assessing the computational resources and time might be
useful to help software developers to select appropriate functional model for their
precise positioning software engine.
- 24 -
• Selection criteria of integer sets for BIE estimator. Selecting a right size of the
integer sets is key for computing the approximation of the BIE estimator and it is still
an open research problem. The more conservative threshold (e.g. 0.1mm for BIE-td
method or 0.01 for iFlex method shown in Chapter 6) generally requires time-
consuming calculation due to increasing number of integer sets input. Thus, without
introducing proper threshold for the selected integer sets, it might be difficult to
implement the BIE methods (e.g. BIE-td) for real-time applications. Therefore, a
rigorous method of selecting the integer sets should be investigated to provide an
optimal performance in computational time and positioning accuracy.
There is no doubt that future development in algorithms, functional and stochastic modelling,
and advancement in GNSS technology, with its associated precise products, will continue to
improve PPP solution reliability, accuracy and convergence time.
- 25 -
REFERENCES
Aggrey J, Bisnath S (2019) Improving GNSS PPP Convergence: The case of atmospheric-
constrained, Multi-GNSS PPP-AR. Sensors (Basel, Switzerland) 19(3):587. doi:
https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s19030587.
Altamimi Z, Collilieux X, Metivier L (2011) ITRF2008: An improved solution of the
international terrestrial reference frame. Journal of Geodesy 85(8):457-473. doi:
https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00190-011-0444-4.
Banville S (2016) GLONASS ionosphere-free ambiguity resolution for precise point
positioning. Journal of Geodesy 90(5):487-496.
Banville S, Collins P, Zhang W, Langley RB (2014) Global and regional ionospheric
corrections for faster PPP convergence. Navigation 61(2):115-124. doi:
https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/navi.57.
Bertiger W, Desai SD, Haines B, Harvey N, Moore AW, Owen S, Weiss JP (2010) Single
receiver phase ambiguity resolution with GPS data. Journal of Geodesy 84(5):327-337.
Böhm J, Niell A, Tregoning P, Schuh H (2006) Global Mapping Function (GMF): A new
empirical mapping function based on numerical weather model data. Geophysical
Research Letters 33(7).
Brack A (2017) Reliable GPS+ BDS RTK positioning with partial ambiguity resolution. GPS
Solutions 21(3):1083-1092.
Cai C, He C, Santerre R, Pan L, Cui X, Zhu J (2016) A comparative analysis of measurement
noise and multipath for four constellations: GPS, BeiDou, GLONASS and Galileo.
Survey Review 48(349):287-295. doi:
https://dx.doi.org/10.1179/1752270615Y.0000000032.
Cao W, O’Keefe K, Cannon M (2007) Partial ambiguity fixing within multiple frequencies and
systems. Proc. The 20th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of
The Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS 2007), Fort Worth, TX, USA, 25-28
September, 312-323.
Choy S, Bisnath S, Rizos C (2016) Uncovering common misconceptions in GNSS Precise
Point Positioning and its future prospect. GPS Solutions. doi:
https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10291-016-0545-x.
CLK93 (2020) Streaming products. Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (CNES)
http://www.ppp-wizard.net/products/. Accessed 20 March 2020.
CNES (2020) The precise point positioning with integer and zero-difference ambiguity
resolution demonstrator (PPP-Wizard) project. CNES, Franch. http://www.ppp-
wizard.net/ssr.html. Accessed 20 March 2020.
CNSO (2020) Test and Assessment Research Center of China Satellite Navigation Office.
http://www.csno-tarc.cn/en/system/introduction. Accessed 20 March 2020.
Cocard M, Bourgon S, Kamali O, Collins P (2008) A systematic investigation of optimal
carrier-phase combinations for modernized triple-frequency GPS. Journal of Geodesy
82(9):555-564. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00190-007-0201-x.
Collins P (2008) Isolating and estimating undifferenced GPS integer ambiguities. Proc. The
2008 National Technical Meeting of The Institute of Navigation, San Diego, CA, USA,
28-30 January, 720-732.
- 26 -
Collins P, Bisnath S (2011) Issues in ambiguity resolution for precise point positioning. Proc.
ION GNSS 2011, Institute of Navigation, Portland, Oregon, USA, 20-23 September,
679-687.
Collins P, Lahaye F, Bisnath S (2012) External ionospheric constraints for improved PPP-AR
initialisation and a generalised local augmentation concept. Proc. the 25th International
Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS
2012), Nashville, US, 17-21 September, 3055-3065.
Dach R, Lutz S, Walser P, Fridez P (2015) Bernese GNSS software version 5.2. Astronomical
Institute, University of Bern, Switzerland.
Dai L, Eslinger D, Sharpe T (2007) Innovative algorithms to improve long range RTK
reliability and availability. Proc. ION NTM, San Diego, CA, USA, 22-24 January, 860-
872.
Duong V, Choy S, Harima K, Thompson T (2017a) Accurate GNSS positioning using low-
cost receivers. International Symposium on GNSS (ISGNSS 2017), The Hong Kong
Polytechnic University (PolyU), Hong Kong, 10-13 December.
Duong V, Harima K, Choy S (2018) Performance of precise point positioning using current
triple‐frequency GNSS measurements in Southeast Asian region. Multi‐GNSS Asia
Conference, RMIT Melbourne, Australia, 23‐25 October.
Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Laurichesse D, Rizos C (2019a) Assessing the performance of
multi-frequency GPS, Galileo and BeiDou PPP ambiguity resolution. Journal of Spatial
Science:1-18. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14498596.2019.1658652.
Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Laurichesse D, Rizos C (2019b) An assessment of wide-lane
ambiguity resolution methods for multi-frequency multi-GNSS precise point
positioning. Survey Review. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00396265.2019.1634339.
Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Laurichesse D, Rizos C (2019c) An optimal linear combination
model to accelerate PPP convergence using multi-frequency multi-GNSS
measurements. GPS Solutions 23(2):49. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10291-019-
0842-2.
Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Rizos C (2016) Performance of precise point positioning using
current triple-frequency GPS measurements in Australia. Proc. International Global
Navigation Satellite Systems (IGNSS 2016), Sydney, Australia, 6-8 December, 1-15.
Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Rizos C (2017b) Performance of precise point positioning using
current multi-frequency and multi-GNSS measurements in Australia. International
Symposium on GNSS (ISGNSS 2017), The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
(PolyU), Hong Kong, 10-13 December.
Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Rizos C (2020a) Multi-frequency multi-GNSS PPP: A
comparison of two ambiguity resolution methods. Proc. IGNSS 2020, February 5-7,
Sydney, Australia, 1-11.
Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Rizos C (2020b) A new partial ambiguity resolution approach
for reliable multi-frequency and multi-GNSS PPP. Journal of Geodesy.
El-Mowafy A, Deo M, Rizos C (2016) On biases in precise point positioning with multi-
constellation and multi-frequency GNSS data. Measurement Science and Technology
27(3):035102. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0957-0233/27/3/035102.
- 27 -
Feng Y (2008) GNSS three carrier ambiguity resolution using ionosphere-reduced virtual
signals. Journal of Geodesy 82(12):847-862. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00190-
008-0209-x.
Gabor MJ, Nerem RS (2002) Satellite–Satellite Single‐Difference Phase Bias Calibration As
Applied to Ambiguity Resolution. Navigation 49(4):223-242. doi:
https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-4296.2002.tb00270.x.
Ge M, Gendt G, Rothacher M, Shi C, Liu J (2008) Resolution of GPS carrier-phase ambiguities
in Precise Point Positioning (PPP) with daily observations. Journal of Geodesy
82(7):389-399. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00190-007-0187-4.
Geng J, Guo J, Chang H, Li X (2018) Toward global instantaneous decimeter-level positioning
using tightly coupled multi-constellation and multi-frequency GNSS. Journal of
Geodesy. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00190-018-1219-y.
Geng J, Teferle FN, Meng X, Dodson AH (2011) Towards PPP-RTK: Ambiguity resolution in
real-time precise point positioning. Advances in Space Research 47(10):1664-1673.
doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2010.03.030.
Geng JH (2010) Rapid integer ambiguity resolution in GPS precise point positioning. The
University of Nottingham, UK.
Geng JH, Bock Y (2013) Triple-frequency GPS precise point positioning with rapid ambiguity
resolution. Journal of Geodesy 87(5):449-460. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00190-
013-0619-2.
Geng JH, Meng XL, Dodson AH, Ge MR, Teferle FN (2010a) Rapid re-convergences to
ambiguity-fixed solutions in precise point positioning. Journal of Geodesy 84(12):705-
714. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00190-010-0404-4.
Geng JH, Meng XL, Dodson AH, Teferle FN (2010b) Integer ambiguity resolution in precise
point positioning: method comparison. Journal of Geodesy 84(9):569-581. doi:
GLONASS (2020) GLONASS future and evolutions. ESA navipedia.
https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/GLONASS_Future_and_Evolutions.
Accessed 20 March 2020.
GSC-EUROPA (2020) Constellation Information. European GNSS Service Centre.
https://www.gsc-europa.eu/system-service-status/constellation-information. Accessed
20 March 2020.
Guo F, Li X, Zhang X, Wang J (2017) Assessment of precise orbit and clock products for
Galileo, BeiDou, and QZSS from IGS Multi-GNSS Experiment (MGEX). GPS
Solutions 21(1):279-290. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10291-016-0523-3.
Han S, Rizos C (1996) Integrated method for instantaneous ambiguity resolution using new
generation GPS receivers. Proc. IEEE 1996: Position Location and Navigation
Symposium, Atlanta, GA, USA, 22-25 April, 254-261. doi:
https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/PLANS.1996.509086.
Han S, Rizos C (1999) The impact of two additional civilian GPS frequencies on ambiguity
resolution strategies. Proc. The 55th Annual Meeting of The Institute of Navigation
1999, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 27-30 June, 28-30.
- 28 -
Hatch R (1983) The synergism of GPS code and carrier measurements. Proc. International
geodetic symposium on satellite doppler positioning, Las Cruces, NM, New Mexico
State University, USA, 8-12 February, 1213-1231.
Henkel P, Günther C (2012) Reliable integer ambiguity resolution: multi‐frequency code
carrier linear combinations and statistical a priori knowledge of attitude. Navigation
59(1):61-75. doi: https://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1002/navi.6.
Herring TA, King RW, Floyd MA, McClusky SC (2010) Introduction to GAMIT/GLOBK.
Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge.
Hofmann-Wellenhof B, Lichtenegger H, Wasle E (2008) GNSS – Global Navigation Satellite
Systems: GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and more. Springer, Vienna. doi:
https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-211-73017-1.
IAC (2020) GLONASS constellation status. Information and analysis center for positioning,
navigation and timing. https://www.glonass-iac.ru/en/GLONASS/. Accessed 20 March
2020.
IGS-RINEX-3.04 (2020) RINEX 3.04 Now Available. International GNSS service (IGS).
http://www.igs.org/article/rinex-3.04-now-available. Accessed 20 March 2020.
IGS (2020) Satellite corrections. Internation GNSS service. http://www.igs.org/. Accessed 20
March 2020.
ITRF2008 (2020) Australian Regional GNSS Network. Geoscience Australia analysis report.
ftp://ftp.ga.gov.au/geodesy-outgoing/gnss/solutions/final/weekly/. Accessed 20 March
2020.
Kouba J (2009) A Guide To Using International GNSS Service (IGS) Products. Geodetic
Survey Division, Natural Resources, Canada.
Laurichesse D (2012) Phase biases estimation for undifferenced ambiguity resolution. PPP-
RTK & Open Standards Symposium, Frankfurt, Germany, 12-13 March.
Laurichesse D (2015) Handling the biases for improved triple-frequency PPP convergence.
GPS World.
Laurichesse D, Banville S (2018) Instantaneous centimeter-level multi-frequency precise point
positioning. GPS World (Innovation Column).
Laurichesse D, Blot A (2016a) Fast PPP convergence using multi-constellation and triple-
frequency ambiguity resolution. Proc. ION GNSS 2016, Institute of Navigation,
Portland, Oregon, USA, 12-16 September, 2082-2088.
Laurichesse D, Blot A (2016b) Fast PPP convergence using multi-constellations and triple-
frequency ambiguity resolution. IGS Workshop, UNSW, Sydney, Australia, 8-12
February.
Laurichesse D, Flavien M, Jean-Paul B, Patrick B, Luca C (2009) Integer ambiguity resolution
on undifferenced GPS phase measurements and its application to PPP and satellite
precise orbit determination. Navigation 56(2):135-149. doi:
https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-4296.2009.tb01750.x.
Laurichesse D, Mercier F, Berthias J-P (2010) Real-time PPP with undifferenced integer
ambiguity resolution, experimental results. Proc. The ION GNSS, EGU Vienna,
Austria, 21 September, 2534-2544.
- 29 -
Laurichesse D, Mercier F, Berthias JP, Bijac J (2008) Real time zero difference ambiguities
blocking and absolute RTK. Proc. ION NTM-2008, San Diego, California.
Leick A, Rapoport L, Tatarnikov D (2015) GPS satellite surveying. Fourth ed. John Wiley and
Sons, USA. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119018612.
Li B, Feng Y, Shen Y (2010) Three carrier ambiguity resolution: distance-independent
performance demonstrated using semi-generated triple frequency GPS signals. GPS
solutions 14(2):177-184.
Li P, Zhang X (2015) Precise point positioning with partial ambiguity fixing. Sensors
15(6):13627-13643. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s150613627.
Li T, Wang J, Laurichesse D (2013) Modeling and quality control for reliable precise point
positioning integer ambiguity resolution with GNSS modernization. GPS Solutions
Loyer S, Perosanz F, Mercier F, Capdeville H, Marty J-C (2012) Zero-difference GPS
ambiguity resolution at CNES–CLS IGS Analysis Center. Journal of Geodesy
Luo X (2013) GPS Stochastic Modelling: Signal quality measures and ARMA processes.
Signal Quality Measures and ARMA Processes. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin.
doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-34836-5.
Madrid PFN (2016) Device and method for computing an error bound of a kalman filter based
gnss position solution. US Patent 20160109579A1, 21 April.
Melbourne W (1985) The case for ranging in GPS-based geodetic systems. Proc. The first
international symposium on precise positioning with the global positioning system,
U.S. Department of Commerce, Rockville, Maryland, USA, 15-19 April, 373-386.
MGEX (2020) The Multi-GNSS Experiment and Pilot Project (MGEX).
http://mgex.igs.org/index.php#MGEX. Accessed 20 March 2020.
Montenbruck O et al. (2015) GNSS satellite geometry and attitude models. Advances in Space
Research 56(6):1015-1029. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2015.06.019.
Montenbruck O, Steigenberger P (2015) IGS-MGEX: Preparing for a Multi-GNSS world.
National PNT Advisory Board Meeting 2015, Annapolis, MD, 10-12 June.
Montenbruck O et al. (2017) The Multi-GNSS Experiment (MGEX) of the International GNSS
Service (IGS): Achievements, prospects and challenges. Advances in Space Research
59(7):1671-1697. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2017.01.011.
Nadarajah N, Khodabandeh A, Wang K, Choudhury M, Teunissen PJG (2018) Multi-GNSS
PPP-RTK: From large to small-scale networks. Sensors 18(4). doi:
https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s18041078.
NAVCEN (2020) GPS constellation status for 03/20/2020. The navigation center of exellence,
U.S. Department of Homeland Security.
https://navcen.uscg.gov/?Do=constellationStatus. Accessed 20 March 2020.
Niell AE (1996) Global mapping functions for the atmosphere delay at radio wavelengths.
Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 101(B2):3227-3246. doi:
https://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1029/95JB03048.
Odijk D, Arora BS, Teunissen PJG (2014) Predicting the success rate of long-baseline GPS+
Galileo (partial) ambiguity resolution. The Journal of Navigation 67(3):385-401.
- 30 -
Odijk D, Khodabandeh A, Nadarajah N, Choudhury M, Zhang B, Li W, Teunissen PJG (2017a)
PPP-RTK by means of S-system theory: Australian network and user demonstration.
Journal of Spatial Science 62(1):3-27. doi:
https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14498596.2016.1261373.
Odijk D, Nadarajah N, Zaminpardaz S, Teunissen PJG (2017b) GPS, Galileo, QZSS and
IRNSS differential ISBs: estimation and application. GPS Solutions 21(2):439-450.
doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10291-016-0536-y.
Odijk D, Teunissen PJG, Tiberius C (2002) Triple-frequency ionosphere-free phase
combinations for ambiguity resolution. Proc. ENC-GNSS 2002, Copenhagen,
Denmark, 27-30.
Odijk D, Teunissen PJG, Zhang B (2012) Single-frequency integer ambiguity resolution
enabled GPS precise point positioning. Journal of Surveying Engineering 138(4):193-
202. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)SU.1943-5428.0000085.
Pan L, Xiaohong Z, Fei G (2017) Ambiguity resolved precise point positioning with GPS and
BeiDou. Journal of Geodesy 91(1):25-40.
Parkins A (2011) Increasing GNSS RTK availability with a new single-epoch batch partial
ambiguity resolution algorithm. GPS solutions 15(4):391-402.
Petit G, Luzum B (2010) IERS conventions. Bureau international des poids et mesures sevres,
France.
Richert T, El-Sheimy N (2006) Optimal linear combinations of triple frequency carrier phase
data from future global navigation satellite systems. GPS Solutions 11(1):11-19. doi:
Rizos C, Janssen V, Roberts C, Grinter T (2012) Precise Point Positioning: Is the era of
differential GNSS positioning drawing to an end? Proc. FIG Working Week, Rome,
Italy, 6-10 May.
Schaffrin B, Grafarend E (1986a) Generating classes of equivalent linear models by nuisance
parameter. Manuscripta geodaetica 11(1986):262-271.
Schaffrin B, Grafarend E (1986b) Generating classes of equivalent linear models by nuisance
parameter. Manuscripta geodaetica 11(4):262-271.
Shen X (2002) Improving ambiguity convergence in carrier phase-based precise point
positioning. University of Calgary, Department of Geomatics Engineering.
Shi J (2012) Precise point positioning integer ambiguity resolution with decoupled clocks.
Department of Geomatics Engineering, University of Calgary, Canada.
Shi J, Gao Y (2013) A comparison of three PPP integer ambiguity resolution methods. GPS
Solutions 18(4):519-528. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10291-013-0348-2.
Steigenberger P et al. (2015) Galileo orbit and clock quality of the IGS Multi-GNSS
Experiment. Advances in Space Research 55(1):269-281. doi:
https://dx.doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2014.06.030.
Takasu T (2013) RTKLIB ver. 2.4.2 manual, RTKLIB: an open source program package for
GNSS positioning. Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo,
Japan.
- 31 -
Takasu T, Yasuda A (2010) Kalman-filter-based integer ambiguity resolution strategy for long-
baseline RTK with ionosphere and troposphere estimation. Proc. The ION GNSS, 21-
24 September, Portland, Oregon, USA, 161-171.
Talbot NC, Vollath U (2013) GNSS signal processing methods and apparatus with ambiguity
convergence indication. US Patent 8368591B2, 5 February.
Teunissen P, Khodabandeh A (2013) BLUE, BLUP and the Kalman filter: some new results.
Journal of geodesy 87(5):461-473.
Teunissen PJG (1993) Least-squares estimation of the integer GPS ambiguities. International
Association of Geodesy General Meeting, Beijing, China, August.
Teunissen PJG (1994) A new method for fast carrier phase ambiguity estimation. Proc. IEEE
1994: Position Location and Navigation Symposium, 11-15 April, 562-573. doi:
https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/PLANS.1994.303362.
Teunissen PJG (1997a) A canonical theory for short GPS baselines. Part IV: precision versus
reliability. Journal of Geodesy 71(9):513-525. doi:
https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s001900050119.
Teunissen PJG (1997b) On the GPS widelane and its decorrelating property. Journal of
Geodesy 71(9):577-587.
Teunissen PJG (1998) Success probability of integer GPS ambiguity rounding and
bootstrapping. Journal of Geodesy 72(10):606-612.
Teunissen PJG (1999) An optimality property of the integer least-squares estimator. Journal of
geodesy 73(11):587-593.
Teunissen PJG (2001a) GNSS ambiguity bootstrapping: theory and application. Proc.
International symposium on kinematic systems in Geodesy, geomatics and navigation,
Banff, Canada, 5–8 June, 246-254.
Teunissen PJG (2001b) Integer estimation in the presence of biases. Journal of Geodesy
75(7):399-407. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s001900100191.
Teunissen PJG (2003) Theory of integer equivariant estimation with application to GNSS.
Journal of Geodesy 77(7):402-410. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00190-003-0344-
3.
Teunissen PJG (2005) On the computation of the best integer equivariant estimator. Artificial
satellites 40(3):161-171.
Teunissen PJG (2007) Best prediction in linear models with mixed integer/real unknowns:
theory and application. Journal of Geodesy 81(12):759-780.
Teunissen PJG, de Bakker PF (2013) Single-receiver single-channel multi-frequency GNSS
integrity: Outliers, slips, and ionospheric disturbances. Journal of Geodesy 87(2):161-
177. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00190-012-0588-x.
Teunissen PJG, Joosten P, Tiberius C (1999) Geometry-free ambiguity success rates in case of
partial fixing. Proc. ION NTM 1999, San Diego, CA, 25-27 January, 25-27.
Teunissen PJG, Khodabandeh A (2014) Review and principles of PPP-RTK methods. Journal
of Geodesy 89(3):217-240. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00190-014-0771-3.
Teunissen PJG, Montenbruck O (2017) Springer handbook of global navigation satellite
systems. Handbook of global navigation satellite systems. Springer, Cham,
Switzerland. doi:
- 32 -
Teunissen PJG, Verhagen S (2008) GNSS ambiguity resolution: when and how to fix or not to
fix? Proc. VI Hotine-Marussi Symposium on Theoretical and Computational Geodesy,
29 May, Springer, 143-148.
Van Der Marel H, De Bakker P (2012) Single versus dual-frequency precise point positioning:
What are the tradeoffs between using L1-only and L1+L2 for PPP? Inside GNSS 1:30-
35.
Verhagen S, Li B (2012) LAMBDA software package: Matlab implementation, version 3.0.
Mathematical Geodesy and Positioning, Delft University of Technology and Curtin
University, Perth, Australia.
Verhagen S, Odijk D, Teunissen PJG, Huisman L (2010) Performance improvement with low-
cost multi-GNSS receivers. Proc. 2010 5th ESA Workshop on Satellite Navigation
Technologies and European Workshop on GNSS Signals and Signal Processing
(NAVITEC), 8-10 December, 1-8. doi:
https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/NAVITEC.2010.5708015.
Verhagen S, Teunissen PJG (2005) Performance comparison of the BIE estimator with the float
and fixed GNSS ambiguity estimators. Proc. International association of geodesy
symposia - A window on the future of geodesy, Sapporo, Japan, 30 June, Springer
Berlin Heidelberg, 428-433.
Verhagen S, Teunissen PJG (2013) The ratio test for future GNSS ambiguity resolution. GPS
Solutions 17(4):535-548. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10291-012-0299-z.
Verhagen S, Teunissen PJG, van der Marel H, Li B (2011) GNSS ambiguity resolution: Which
subset to fix. Proc. IGNSS Symposium, Sydney, Australia, 15-17 November, 15-17.
Verhagen S, Tiberius C, Li B, Teunissen PJG (2012) Challenges in ambiguity resolution:
Biases, weak models, and dimensional curse. Proc. Satellite Navigation Technologies
and European Workshop on GNSS Signals and Signal Processing, (NAVITEC), 2012
6th ESA Workshop on, Noordwijk, Netherlands, 5-7 December, 1-8. doi:
https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/NAVITEC.2012.6423075.
Vollath U (2014) GNSS signal processing methods and apparatus with scaling of quality
measure. US Patent 8704708B2, 22 April.
Vollath U, Talbot NC (2013) GNSS signal processing methods and apparatus with candidate
set selection. US Patent 008368590B2, 5 February.
Wang J, Feng Y (2013) Reliability of partial ambiguity fixing with multiple GNSS
constellations. Journal of Geodesy 87(1):1-14. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00190-
012-0573-4.
Wang K, Khodabandeh A, Teunissen PJG (2018) Five-frequency Galileo long-baseline
ambiguity resolution with multipath mitigation. GPS Solutions 22(3):75. doi:
https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10291-018-0738-6.
Wang K, Rothacher M (2013) Ambiguity resolution for triple-frequency geometry-free and
ionospheric-free combination tested with real data. Journal of Geodesy 87(6):539-553.
doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00190-013-0630-7.
Wanninger L, Beer S (2015) BeiDou satellite-induced code pseudorange variations: diagnosis
and therapy. GPS Solutions 19(4):639-648. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10291-
014-0423-3.
- 33 -
Wubbena G (1985) Software developments for geodetic positioning with GPS using TI 4100
code and carrier measurements. Proc. of first international symposium on precise
positioning with the global positioning system, US Department of Commerce,
Rockville, Maryland, 15-19 April, 403-412.
Wübbena G, Schmitz M, Bagge A (2005) PPP-RTK: precise point positioning using state-
space representation in RTK networks. Proc. ION GNSS-2005, 13-16 September, 1-11.
Xiang Y, Gao Y, Shi J, Xu C (2017) Carrier phase-based ionospheric observables using PPP
models. Geodesy and Geodynamics 8(1):17-23. doi:
https://dx.doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geog.2017.01.006.
Zhang B, Teunissen PJG, Odijk D (2011) A novel un-differenced PPP-RTK concept. The
Journal of Navigation 64(S1):S180-S191.
Zhou F, Dong D, Li P, Li X, Schuh H (2019) Influence of stochastic modeling for inter-system
biases on multi-GNSS undifferenced and uncombined precise point positioning. GPS
Solutions 23(3):59.
Zumberge JF, Heflin MB, Jefferson DC, Watkins MM, Webb FH (1997) Precise point
positioning for the efficient and robust analysis of GPS data from large networks.
Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 102(B3):5005-5017. doi:
https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/96jb03860.
- 34 -

多频多星座GNSS精密单点定位模糊度解算 2020

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

多频多星座GNSS精密单点定位模糊度解算 2020

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Precise Point Positioning with ambiguity

resolution using multi-frequency multi-

College of Science, Engineering and Health

I would like to express my utmost gratitude to my supervisor, Associate Professor Dr

The prospects, effectiveness, as well as challenges in using triple-frequency GNSS

The benefits of multi-frequency GNSS measurements in PPP-AR are investigated. The

A reliable WL ambiguity resolution method plays a significant role in reducing the

Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................ iii

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS ................................................................................................... vi

Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................vii

List of Tables ........................................................................................................................... ix

List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... x

List of Abbreviations .............................................................................................................. xi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background .......................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Problem statement................................................................................................................ 6

1.3 Research aim and questions ................................................................................................. 8

1.4 Research scope and approach .............................................................................................. 9

1.5 Thesis outline ....................................................................................................................... 9

CHAPTER 2: PPP PERFORMANCE USING DUAL- AND TRIPLE-FREQUENCY

CHAPTER 3: PPP PERFORMANCE USING MULTI-FREQUENCY MULTI-GNSS

CHAPTER 4: PPP WIDE-LANE AMBIGUITY RESOLUTION METHODS IN

CHAPTER 5: RAPID CONVERGENCE TIMES OF PPP SOLUTIONS .................. 17

CHAPTER 6: RELIABLE AMBIGUITY RESOLUTION METHODS FOR MULTI-

CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................. 19

7.1 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................ 19

7.1.2 Benefits of using multi-frequency and multi-constellation GNSS measurements .. 19

7.1.3 Wide-lane ambiguity resolution methods ................................................................ 20

7.1.4 Linear combination models to accelerate PPP convergence ................................... 21

7.1.5 Reliable ambiguity resolution methods ................................................................... 22

7.2 Recommendations .............................................................................................................. 23

Figure 1.3. Number of triple-frequency GPS+Galileo+BeiDou satellites observed worldwide

Figure 1.1. PPP approach in offshore surveying concepts

Unlike relative positioning such as Real-Time-Kinematic (RTK) or Network Real-Time-

RTK network on land

The availability of accurate atmospheric delay corrections is a crucial element in instantaneous

To obtain global centimeter-level accuracy, standard PPP with “float ambiguities”

Dual-frequency GPS measurement is often used to further enhance PPP-AR performance

1.2 Problem statement

Further investigations in utilising multi-frequency and multi-constellation GNSS (multi-

The use of multi-frequency and multi-constellation GNSS measurements is expected to

Multi-frequency and multi-GNSS measurements bring both opportunities and

1.3 Research aim and questions

1. What is the current performance of triple-frequency PPP in terms of convergence

1.4 Research scope and approach

Further, IGS offers comprehensive products for multi-GNSS measurement processing,

1.5 Thesis outline

This chapter draws material from the following peer-reviewed publication:

• Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Rizos C (2016) Performance of precise point positioning

Chapter 3: PPP Performance using multi-frequency multi-GNSS signals

This chapter draws material from the following publication:

• Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Laurichesse D, Rizos C (2019a) Assessing the

Chapter 4: PPP wide-lane ambiguity resolution methods in multi-frequency multi-

This chapter draws material from the following publication:

• Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Laurichesse D, Rizos C (2019b) An assessment of wide-

This chapter draws material from the following publication:

• Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Laurichesse D, Rizos C (2019c) An optimal linear

Chapter 6: Reliable ambiguity resolution methods for multi-frequency multi-GNSS PPP

This chapter draws material from the following publication:

• Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Rizos C (2020b) A reliable partial ambiguity resolution

Convergence times of PPP solutions are dependent on the correctness of carrier-phase

[Copyrighted material omitted] Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Rizos C (2016) Performance of

[Copyrighted material omitted] Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Laurichesse D, Rizos C (2019a)

[Copyrighted material omitted] Duong V, Harima K, Choy S, Rizos C (2017b) Performance