MCQ:-

1. Hydrophobic side chain generally present in(probably duplicate)=core

region
2. Where is primary structure of protein involved=peptide bond formation
3. Which of the following is false about secondary protein structure=The
hydrophilic/hydrophobic chapter of amino acid resides is important to
secondary structure
4. What does a neucleoside consist of(probably duplicate)=purine or
pyrimidine based sugar
5. What does a neucleoside consist of= purine or pyrimidine based sugar
6. Which enzyme unwounds DNA=Helicase
7. What are Ribosomes compased of= (protein and RNA)(Both)
8. Where are grey and white matter found=Both spinal cord and brain
9. Which of these are included in Gene bank= Information about the locus
name,length of the sequenece
10.Name of the bond which link amino acids=Peptide bond
11.A mullti subunit protein will have=Quaternary structure
12.Name of the basic amino acid=Arginine
13. Which technique was used to determine the double-helix structure of
DNA=x-ray crystalography
14.Who came forth with the structure of DNA=Watson and Crick
15.If the sequence bases in coding of DNA is ATCGATG, then the sequence
of bases in mRNA will be=UAAGCUAC
16.Which of these are example of protein engineering=Humulin
17.Which of the following is not possible about secondary structure of
protein= The hydrophilic/hydrophobic chapter of amino acid resides is
important to secondary structure
18.What structure has hydrogen bond between polypeptic chains arranged
side by side=i2 -pleated sheets
19.Recognize the factor not responsible for the denaturation of
protein=Charge
20.As per you what is bioinformatics comprises of=Biology,computer
science and IT
21.Infer the year when human genome project ended=13 years
22.As per your combination is incorrect=None of the mentioned
23.Which of this do you think function is used for k-means clustering=k-
means
24.Among these which needs a stretched grid=Viscous flow over a flat plate
25.Can you predict bond which is broken during DNA replication=Hydrogen
bond between bases
26.Which of these bases has zero weight in RNA=Thymine
27.Can you differentiate btwn a DNA and RNA=Sugar and Pyrimidine
28.As per you when are two sequence said to be homologus=They have
diverged from a common ancestor
29.What do you think databases such as CATH and SCOP used to
identify=the genic family to which a protein belongs
30.Do you know where are co-ordinates to know protein structure used in=
PDB
31.Among the given which is not protein sequence database=EMBL
32.According to you what does the branch point in tree denoted=Divergence
event
33.According to you sanger sequencing is based on=Neucleotide based in
DNA
34.Human genome contains how many nitrogeneious bases=3.3 billion base
pairs
35.What is the generation of sanger sequence techniques=Generation
techniques
36.Which year marked the end of human genome project=2003
37.Which of the technique are employed by HGP=Both the technique
38.K-means is not deterministic and it also consists of no of iterations ,What
do understand by this question=Yes
39.The shape of tRNA is of which type=
40.Which base is absent in RNA=Thymine
41.A full trim of the B-DNA double helix accommodates how many
neucleotides=10
42.Multiple subunit protein will have this structure=Quaternary structure
43.Among there which is basic amino acid=Arginine
44.Which is the amino acids containing aliphatic and non polar groups=
Phenylalanime, tyrosine, tryptophan
45.Neucleotide consist of which of these=Purine and pyrimidine based
sugar
46.Who among this are said to have discovered the structure of DNA=Crick
and Neck
47.What is the name given to the method of making DNA from
RNA=Reverse transcripton
48.What is humerus is the part of=Upper arm
49.What if the muscle attached with skeleton is known as=strate muscle
 1. What do you understand by sequence alignment, explain MSA
protocol.
A:
 In bioinformatics, a sequence alignment is a way of arranging the primary
sequences of DNA, RNA, or protein to identify regions of similarity that
may be a consequence of functional, structural, or evolutionary
relationships between the sequences.
 Aligned sequences of nucleotide or amino acid residues are typically
represented as rows within a matrix. Gaps are inserted between the residues
so that residues with identical or similar characters are aligned in
successive columns.
 If two sequences in an alignment share a common ancestor, mismatches
can be interpreted as point mutations and gaps as introduced in one or both
lineages in the time since they diverged from one another.
 In protein sequence alignment, the degree of similarity between amino
acids occupying a particular position in the sequence can be interpreted as
a rough measure of how conserved a particular region or sequence motif is
among lineages.
 Sequence alignment can be used for non-biological sequences, such as
identifying similarities in a series of letters and words present in human
language.
 A variety of computational algorithms have been applied to the sequence
alignment problem, including slow but formally optimizing methods like
dynamic programming and efficient heuristic or probabilistic methods
designed for large-scale database search.
 Multiple sequence alignment (MSA) may refer to the process or the result
of sequence alignment of three or more biological sequences, generally
protein, DNA, or RNA.
  In many cases, the input set of query sequences are assumed to have an
evolutionary relationship by which they share a linkage and are descended
from a common ancestor.
 From the resulting MSA, sequence homology can be inferred and
phylogenetic analysis can be conducted to assess the sequences' shared
evolutionary origins.
 Multiple sequence alignment is often used to assess sequence conservation
of protein domains, tertiary and secondary structures, and even individual
amino acids or nucleotides.
 Computational algorithms are used to produce and analyses the MSAs due
to the difficulty and intractability of manually processing the sequences
given their biologically-relevant length.
 MSAs require more sophisticated methodologies than pairwise alignment
because they are more computationally complex.
 Most multiple sequence alignment programs use heuristic methods rather
than global optimization because identifying the optimal alignment
between more than a few sequences of moderate length is prohibitively
computationally expensive.
2. Discuss the role of denaturating agents in protein.
A: Denaturation can be brought about in various ways. Proteins are denatured
by treatment with alkaline or acid, oxidizing or reducing agents, and certain
organic solvents. Interesting among denaturing agents are those that affect the
secondary and tertiary structure without affecting the primary structure. The
agents most frequently used for this purpose are urea and guanidinium chloride.
These molecules, because of their high affinity for peptide bonds, break the
hydrogen bonds and the salt bridges between positive and negative side chains,
thereby abolishing the tertiary structure of the peptide chain. When denaturing
agents are removed from a protein solution, the native protein re-forms in many
cases. Denaturation can also be accomplished by reduction of the disulfide
bonds of cystine—i.e., conversion of the disulfide bond (―S―S―) to two
sulfhydryl groups (―SH). This, of course, results in the formation of two
cysteines. Reoxidation of the cysteines by exposure to air sometimes
regenerates the native protein. In other cases, however, the wrong cysteines
become bound to each other, resulting in a different protein. Finally,
denaturation can also be accomplished by exposing proteins to organic solvents
such as ethanol or acetone. It is believed that the organic solvents interfere with
the mutual attraction of nonpolar groups.
3. Discuss the secondary and tertiary structure of protein.
A:
Secondary structure of protein refers to local folded structures that form
within a polypeptide due to interactions between atoms of the backbone.
 The proteins do not exist in just simple chains of polypeptides.
 These polypeptide chains usually fold due to the interaction between the
amine and carboxyl group of the peptide link.
 The structure refers to the shape in which a long polypeptide chain can
exist.
 They are found to exist in two different types of structures α – helix and β
– pleated sheet structures.
 This structure arises due to the regular folding of the backbone of the
polypeptide chain due to hydrogen bonding between -CO group and -NH
groups of the peptide bond.
 However, segments of the protein chain may acquire their own local fold,
which is much simpler and usually takes the shape of a spiral an extended
shape or a loop. These local folds are termed secondary elements and
form the proteins secondary structure.

Tertiary Structure of Protein:-

 This structure arises from further folding of the secondary structure of the
protein.
 H-bonds, electrostatic forces, disulphide linkages, and Vander Waals
forces stabilize this structure.
 The tertiary structure of proteins represents overall folding of the
polypeptide chains, further folding of the secondary structure.
 It gives rise to two major molecular shapes called fibrous and globular.
 The main forces which stabilize the secondary and tertiary structures of
proteins are hydrogen bonds, disulphide linkages, van der Waals and
electrostatic forces of attraction.
 4. Explain the structure of hemoglobin.
A: Max Perutz described the molecular structure of haemoglobin in 1959.
Haemoglobin is a tetrameric protein. The main type of haemoglobin in adults is
made up of two subunits each of ‘𝜶’ and ‘𝝱’ polypeptide chains. Each
polypeptide chain is linked to a heme prosthetic group.

 𝜶 subunit – It is made up of alpha polypeptide chain having 141 amino

acid residues.
 𝝱 subunit – It is made up of beta polypeptide chain having 146 amino
acid residues.
 Heme group – It is an iron-containing prosthetic group, which is attached
to each polypeptide chain. It contains iron in the centre of the porphyrin
ring.
In the quaternary structure, there is a strong interaction between 𝜶 and 𝝱
subunits. On mild treatment with urea, haemoglobin partially dissociates but 𝜶𝝱
dimers remain intact. The subunits are bound together by mostly hydrophobic
interactions, hydrogen bonding and a few ion pairs or salt bridges.
In infants, there are 2 alpha and 2 gamma chains, which get replaced by beta
chains.
Haemoglobin is present in two conformations, i.e. R state and T state. Oxygen
has more affinity to R state and deoxyhaemoglobin is primarily present in T
state.

5. Describe central dogma.

A: The central dogma illustrates the flow of genetic information in cells,
the DNA replication, and coding for the RNA through the transcription process
and further RNA codes for the proteins by translation.
The concept of a sequence of interaction can be understood through the
framework. The most common includes biopolymers. The major category of
biopolymers include Proteins, RNA and DNA that are further divided into
general transfers, unknown transfers, and special transfers.
Special transfers occur in an exceptional case in the laboratory. General transfer
occurs in almost all cells. It describes the regular flow of information through
transcription and translation. Unknown transfers are said never to occur.
 The new DNA strands are formed, with one strand of the parent DNA and
the other is newly synthesized, this process is called semiconservative DNA
replication.
6. Biology is important in computer science, justify with examples.
A: This is a time of increasing interdisciplinary research. Computer science
is learning more from biology every day, enabling a plethora of new
software techniques to flourish. And biology is now beginning to see the
returns, with new models, analyses and explanations being provided by
computers. The merging of computer science and biology is a hard thing to
achieve. It takes a lot of effort. You have to overcome much resistance on
both sides. But it’s worth it. In this paper, which accompanies the keynote
presentation for Evolution Artificielle 2001, Peter J. Bentley discusses a new
breed of scientist called the Digital Biologist, and why they are so important.
Examples of research that benefit both fields will be provided, including
swarming systems, computational development, artificial immune systems
and models of ecologies. Only by working together will biology learn how
nature works, and computer science develop techniques that have some of
the awesome power of nature.
7. Illustrate phylogenetic tree with its importance.
A: It is defined as a diagrammatic representation of evolutionary relationships
among living organisms. This diagrammatic representation represents how
different species evolved from a series of common ancestors.
The phylogenetic tree can also be defined as the two-dimensional graph
representing the evolutionary relationship between an organism from various
other organisms.
The phylogenetic tree is also called the “Tree of Life” or “Dendrogram” The
idea of a phylogenetic tree arose from an ancient concept of a ladder-like
progression from moderate to powerful forms of life. The term Phylogenetic or
Phylogeny is derived from the ancient Greek word, which refers to race, origin
or lineage.
It is the fundamental tool to derive their most-useful evidence from the fields of
anatomy, embryology, palaeontology and molecular genetics. Other
significances of the phylogenetic tree are:

1. Used in the search for a new species.

2. Used to study evolutionary histories.
3. To study how the species were spread geographically.
4. To study the common ancestors of extant and extinct species.
 5. It is used to identify the most recent common ancestors and to recognize
how closely related species are.
6. To relate the milestones of the evolution of major life forms to the tree of
life.
7. To represent evolutionary relationships between organisms that are
believed to have some common ancestry.
8. With the help of the phylogenetic tree, the infectious microbes can be
traced along with their evolutionary histories.

8.What is Watson and Crick model of DNA.

A: Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) is a double-stranded, helical molecule. It

consists of two sugar-phosphate backbones on the outside, held together
by hydrogen bonds between pairs of nitrogenous bases on the inside. The bases
are of four types (A, C, G, & T): pairing always occurs between A & T,
and C & G. James Watson (1928 - ) and Francis Crick (1916 - 2004) realized
that these pairing rules meant that either strand contained all
the information necessary to make a new copy of the entire molecule, and that
the aperiodic order of bases might provide a "genetic code".
Watson and Crick shared the Nobel Prize in 1962 for their discovery, along
with Maurice Wilkins (1916 - 2004), who had continued research to provide a
large body of crystallographic data supporting the model. Working in the same
lab, Rosalind Franklin (1920 - 1958) had earlier produced the first clear
crystallographic evidence for a helical structure. Crick went on to do
fundamental work in molecular biology and neurobiology. Watson become
Director of the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, and headed up the Human
Genome Project in the 1990s.

10.” Identification of a criminal using DNA fingerprinting process is on

application of Bioinformatics”-justify.

A: DNA fingerprinting is a laboratory technique used to determine the probable

identity of a person based on the nucleotide sequences of certain regions of
human DNA that are unique to individuals. DNA fingerprinting is used in a
variety of situations, such as criminal investigations, other forensic purposes
and paternity testing. In these situations, one aims to “match” two DNA
fingerprints with one another, such as a DNA sample from a known person and
one from an unknown person.

An officer collects some samples from the crime scene. They put it in a tube.
And then an hour later, they hold up a brightly colored gel, squint at it, and say,
aha, we have a match for the killer's DNA. Then the show is over. Of course,
that isn't exactly how things work in real life. But DNA fingerprinting is an
important part of forensic science. Although it can't really tell you exactly who
committed a crime, it can be used to help narrow down a list of suspects based
on how well their DNA matches the samples that were found at the crime scene.
Investigators can also use the DNA results to search specific databases to find
other potential suspects.

11. Write brief note on bioinformatics or its application to mankind.

A: Bioinformatics is mainly used to extract knowledge from biological data

through the development of algorithms and software.
Bioinformatics is widely applied in the examination of Genomics, Proteomics,
3D structure modelling of Proteins, Image analysis, Drug designing and a lot
more. A significant application of bioinformatics can be found in the fields
of precision and preventive medicines, which are mainly focused on developing
measures to prevent, control and cure dreadful infectious diseases.
The main aim of Bioinformatics is to increase the understanding of biological
processes.
Listed below are a few applications of Bioinformatics.

 In Gene therapy.
 In Evolutionary studies.
 In Microbial applications.
 In Prediction of Protein Structure.
 For the Storage and Retrieval of Data.
 In the field of medicine, used in the discovery of new drugs.
 In Biometrical Analysis for identification and access control for
improvising crop management, crop production and pest control.

12. Explain human genome project.

 A: The Human Genome Project is an international research project with

the primary goal of deciphering the chemical sequence of the entire human
genetic material (i.e., the entire genome). It identifies all 50,000 to 100,000
genes contained within the genome and provides research tools to analyse
all of this genetic information.
 After the US government picked up the idea in 1984 and began planning,
the project was formally launched in 1990 and completed in 2003.
  The National Institutes of Health (NIH) of the United States, as well as
numerous other organisations from around the world, provided funding.
 The Human Genome Project (HGP) aims to determine the sequence of
chemical base pairs that comprise human DNA, map the entire human
genome, and identify its complex structures and functions.
 Differences in the genetic make-up are caused by differences in DNA
nucleotide sequences. The goal of scientists has always been to map the
human genome. Advances in genetic engineering techniques have made it
possible to isolate and clone DNA fragments and determine their
nucleotide sequences.
 The HGP has transformed biology with its multidisciplinary approach to
deciphering a reference human genome sequence.
 This audacious endeavour resulted in the creation of novel technologies
and analytical tools.
 Finally, the HGP has inspired several other exciting projects that have the
potential to open up new avenues in biology, medicine, and psychology.

3 marks:-
1.Explain the protocol of BLAST and mention its type.

A: The Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) finds regions of similarity
between sequences. The program compares nucleotide or protein sequences and
calculates the statistical significance of matches. BLAST can be used to infer
functional and evolutionary relationships between sequences as well as help
identify members of gene families.

There are several types of BLAST searches. NCBI's Web BLAST offers four
main search types:

 BLAST n (Nucleotide BLAST): compares one or more nucleotide query

sequences to a subject nucleotide sequence or a database of nucleotide
sequences. This is useful when trying to determine the evolutionary
relationships among different organisms (see Comparing two or more
sequences below).
 BLAST x (translated nucleotide sequence searched against protein
sequences): compares a nucleotide query sequence that is translated in six
reading frames (resulting in six protein sequences) against a database of
protein sequences. Because blast x translates the query sequence in all six
reading frames and provides combined significance statistics for hits to
 different frames, it is particularly useful when the reading frame of the
query sequence is unknown or it contains errors that may lead to frame
shifts or other coding errors. Thus blast x is often the first analysis
performed with a newly determined nucleotide sequence.
 T BLAST n (protein sequence searched against translated nucleotide
sequences): compares a protein query sequence against the six-frame
translations of a database of nucleotide sequences. Tblastn is useful for
finding homologous protein coding regions in unannotated nucleotide
sequences such as expressed sequence tags (ESTs) and draft genome
records (HTG), located in the BLAST databases est and htgs,
respectively. ESTs are short, single-read cDNA sequences. They
comprise the largest pool of sequence data for many organisms and
contain portions of transcripts from many uncharacterized genes. The
HTG sequences, draft sequences from various genome projects or large
genomic clones, are another large source of unannotated coding regions.
 BLAST p (Protein BLAST): compares one or more protein query
sequences to a subject protein sequence or a database of protein
sequences. This is useful when trying to identify a protein

2.What is the error complexity equation of adjacency matrix.

A:

3.Define 6 vertices and compute the error complexity value for this.

A:

4.How many types of phylogenetic trees are there? Explain.

A: Distinct phylogenetic trees are divided into varied groups based on their
different traits, such as whether they are rooted, non-rooted, bifurcating, or
multifurcating.

 Rooted tree: A phylogenetic tree with a common ancestor on each node

is referred to as a rooted tree. As a result, the categorization comes to a
stop at one point, typically at the node that serves as the common ancestor
of all the tree branches.
 Unrooted tree: The non-rooted tree does not share a common ancestor
with the rooted tree. The common ancestor or the tree node is always left
out while creating the unrooted phylogenetic tree from the rooted tree.
 Bifurcating tree: Phylogenetic trees that only have two branches or
leaves are referred to as bifurcating trees. Additionally, it can be divided
into rooted and unrooted bifurcating trees.
  Multifurcating tree: Multiple branches can be found on a single node in
a multifurcating tree, as the name suggests. Both a rooted multifurcating
tree and an unrooted multifurcating tree are categories for it once more.

5. What is the significance of phylogenetic tree?

A: The most important data from the disciplines of anatomy, paleontology,

molecular genetics, and embryology, may be derived using this essential
method. The evolutionary tree also has the following significance:

 To illustrate the relationships between organisms thought to share some

evolutionary origin.
 Researching the shared ancestors of extinct and surviving species.
 Employed to research the evolutionary past.
 Employed in the hunt for new species.
 The evolutionary histories of pathogenic bacteria can be tracked with the
use of the phylogenetic tree.
 Research the global dispersal of the species
 It is used to determine the most recent shared ancestors and how closely
related different species are to one another.
 To connect the important turning points in the development of life to the
tree of life.

6. Differentiate cladogram and phylogenetic tree.

A:

BASIS OF
CLADOGRAM PHYLOGENETIC TREE
COMPARISON

A Cladogram is a diagram A Phylogenetic tree is a

used in cladiastics, it shows diagram used to depict
Description hypothetical relationships evolutionary relationships
between groups of among organisms or group of
organisms. organisms.

A Cladogram consists of the In a Phylogenetic tree, the

organisms being studied, species or groups of interest are
Components
lines and nodes where those found at the tips of lines
lines cross. referred to as branches.

Function Cladograms are concerned Phylogenetic trees compare

with the way organisms are organisms over evolutionary
 related to common ancestors time and the amount of change
through shared that has occurred over time to
characteristics. figure out the relationships.

Phylogenetic trees are based on

Cladogram is based on the
morphological characters and
Basis morphological characters of
genetic relationship of the
the organisms.
organism.

Cladogram is drawn with

Branch length of a Phylogenetic
equal-length. The length of
Length tree indicates the evolutionary
the branch does not represent
distance.
an evolutionary distance.

To some extend Phylogenetic

Cladogram represents a
tree indicates the true
Represents hypothetical evolutionary
evolutionary history of
history of organisms.
organisms.

The shape of the Cladogram The distance of the branch

Nature shows the relatedness among depends on the amount of
a group of organisms. inferred evolutionary change.

Originally, Cladograms were

Phylogenetic trees can be drawn
organized based on
in various equivalent styles.
morphological features but
Organization Rotating a tree about its branch
modern cladograms are more
points does not change the
often based on genetic and
information it carries.
molecular data.

Cladograms have lines that

branch off other lines. These
In Phylogenetic trees, two
branching off points represent
species are more related if they
Relation a hypothetical ancestor (not
have a more recent ancestor and
Among Species an actual entity) which can be
less related if they have a less
inferred to exhibit the traits
recent common ancestor.
shared among the terminal
taxa above it.
7.Write different structures of protein.

 The primary structure of protein is the hierarchy’s basic level, and is

the particular linear sequence of amino acids comprising one polypeptide
chain.
 Secondary structure is the next level up from the primary structure, and
is the regular folding of regions into specific structural patterns within
one polypeptide chain. Hydrogen bonds between the carbonyl oxygen and
the peptide bond amide hydrogen are normally held together by
secondary structures.
 Tertiary structure is the next level up from the secondary structure, and
is the particular three-dimensional arrangement of all the amino acids in a
single polypeptide chain. This structure is usually conformational, native,
and active, and is held together by multiple noncovalent interactions.
 Quaternary structure is the next ‘step up’ between two or more
polypeptide chains from the tertiary structure and is the specific spatial
arrangement and interactions.


8.Explain the role of DNA polymerase, helicase, topoisomerase.

A: The primary role of DNA polymerases is to accurately and efficiently

replicate the genome in order to ensure the maintenance of the genetic
information and its faithful transmission through generations.

DNA helicases catalyze the disruption of the hydrogen bonds that hold the two
strands of double-stranded DNA together. This energy-requiring unwinding
reaction results in the formation of the single-stranded DNA required as a
template or reaction intermediate in DNA replication, repair and recombination.

DNA topoisomerases solve the topological problems associated with DNA

replication, transcription, recombination, and chromatin remodeling by
introducing temporary single- or double-strand breaks in the DNA.
9.Differentiate the leading and lagging strand during DNA replication.

10.Discuss the types and number of bones in the body.

A: There are four different types of bone in the human body:

 Long bone – has a long, thin shape. Examples include the bones of the
arms and legs (excluding the wrists, ankles and kneecaps). With the help
of muscles, long bones work as levers to permit movement.
  Short bone – has a squat, cubed shape. Examples include the bones that
make up the wrists and the ankles.
 Flat bone – has a flattened, broad surface. Examples include ribs,
shoulder blades, breast bone and skull bones.
 Irregular bone – has a shape that does not conform to the above three
types. Examples include the bones of the spine (vertebrae).

The human skeleton is made up of 206 bones, including bones of the:

 Skull – including the jaw bone

 Spine – cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, sacrum and tailbone
(coccyx)
 Chest – ribs and breastbone (sternum)
 Arms – shoulder blade (scapula), collar bone (clavicle), humerus, radius
and ulna
 Hands – wrist bones (carpals), metacarpals and phalanges
 Pelvis – hip bones
 Legs – thigh bone (femur), kneecap (patella), shin bone (tibia) and fibula
 Feet – tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges.

8. Describe transcription, translation and replication.(VVI IMP)**

A: Transcription is the process by which DNA is copied (transcribed) to
mRNA, which carries the information needed for protein synthesis.
Transcription takes place in two broad steps. First, pre-messenger RNA is
formed, with the involvement of RNA polymerase enzymes. The process relies
on Watson-Crick base pairing, and the resultant single strand of RNA is the
reverse-complement of the original DNA sequence.
The mRNA formed in transcription is transported out of the nucleus, into the
cytoplasm, to the ribosome (the cell's protein synthesis factory). Here, it directs
protein synthesis. Messenger RNA is not directly involved in protein synthesis -
transfer RNA (tRNA) is required for this. The process by which mRNA directs
protein synthesis with the assistance of tRNA is called translation.
Each time a cell divides, each of its double strands of DNA splits into two
single strands. Each of these single strands acts as a template for a new strand of
complementary DNA. As a result, each new cell has its own complete genome.
This process is known as DNA replication. Replication is controlled by the
Watson-Crick pairing of the bases in the template strand with incoming
deoxynucleotide triphosphates, and is directed by DNA polymerase enzymes. It
is a complex process, particularly in eukaryotes, involving an array of enzymes.