Formulae equations and

amount of substance
IAL Chemistry
UNIT 1

Ms. Pabasari Goonetilleke

Atoms,
Elements,
Molecules,
Compounds and
Ions
Element

- Elements are chemically the simplest substances so they can not be broken down using
chemical reactions
- Elements contain atoms of only one type
• Elements are represented by chemical symbols with the first letter with a Capital letter and the
second letter with a simple letter
Eg: Vanadium – V Copper- Cu

- Monoatomic – Elements that are made of single atoms

Eg: He
- Diatomic – Elements and compounds made up of two atoms joined together
Eg: N2, O2
- Polyatomic – Elements and compounds made up of several atoms joined together
Eg: P4, CH4
Atom

•The smallest part of an element that has the properties of that element

Eg: He
 Molecule
- A particle made of two or more atoms bonded together

- If a molecule contains atoms of same element, it is a molecule of an element

Eg: N2, O2

- If a molecule contains atoms of two or more different elements, it is a molecule of a

compound
Eg: H2O, CO2
Compound

•A substance containing atoms of different elements combined together

Eg: HBr, CO, NO2

 Ions

- A species containing one or more atoms

joined together and having a positive
charge or negative charge

Cation – Ion with positive charge

(Loosing electrons)
Anion – Ion with negative charge
(Gaining electrons)

- If sum of all the positive charges is equal and

opposite to all the negative charges, then the
species will be neutral (no overall charge)
Valency is the numerical measure of the combining power of an atom/ ion
- Many elements have more than one valency. To avoid confusion, a number appears in
brackets after the name. This is the oxidation number and can be used to give the
valency

Eg: Iron (II), Iron (III)

Copper (I), Copper (II)
 Construction of formulae
•
- Balance the number of electrical charges. All compounds are electrically neutral so the
number of positive and negative charges must be balanced
- Switch the valancy numbers if two valancies are different

Eg: Magnesium chloride Ammonium sulfate

Activity – Name the following compounds
• NaBr –
• CaS-
• NaNO3 –
• NaNO2 –
• Na3N –
• NH4Cl –
• CaCO3 –
• MgSO4 –
• MgSO3 –
• NH4OH –
WRITING
CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
 Writing chemical Equations

- Convert words into formulae and decide which are reactants and which are products

- Balance the equation

- Can use whole number coefficients
- Fractions or decimals is also accepted
• Include state
symbols
- s (solid)
- l (liquid)
- g (gas)
- aq (aqueous)
• Usually a reaction is shown by a conventional arrow ( )

• A reversible reaction can be shown by arrow

Ionic Equations

- Ionic equations show any atoms and molecules involved with only the ions that react together
leaving out the spectator ions

- First write the full equation for the reaction

- Replace the formulae of ionic compounds by their separate ions
- Identify the spectator ions
- Write the equation leaving out the spectator ions
Eg: CuSO4 (aq) + Mg (s) → Cu (aq) + MgSO4 (aq)

Cl2 (aq) + 2NaI (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + I2 (aq)

 Ionic – Half Equations

- Ionic – half equations are written for reactions involving oxidation and reduction
- They usually show what happens to only one reactant

Eg: CuSO4 (aq) + Mg (s) → Cu (s) + MgSO4 (aq) Cl2 (aq) + 2NaI (aq) → 2 NaCl (aq) + I2 (aq)
REACTIONS OF ACIDS
With Metals

Metal + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen

Eg: Mg + HCl 🡪 ……………….. + …………………….

Zn + H2SO4 🡪 ……………….. + …………………….

With metal oxides and insoluble metal hydroxide

Metal Oxide / + Acid → Salt + Water

Metal hydroxide

Eg: MgO+ HCl 🡪 ……………….. + …………………….

CuO + H2SO4 🡪 ……………….. + …………………….

Mg(OH) 2 + HCl 🡪 ……………….. + …………………….

NaOH + H2SO4 🡪 ……………….. + …………………….

With metal carbonates/ metal hydrogen carbonate

Metal carbonate/ + acids → Metal salt + carbon dioxide + water

hydrogen carbonate

Eg: CaCO3+ HCl 🡪 ……………….. + ……………………. + …………………….

Li(CO3) 2 + H2SO4 🡪 ……………….. + ……………………. + …………………….

 Displacement reactions

• A reaction in which one element replaces another element in a compound

•Metal displacement reactions in aqueous solutions

Eg: Mg (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ……………….. + …………………….

•Metal displacement reactions in solid state

Eg: Al (l) + Fe2O3 (l) → ……………….. + …………………….

•Displacement reactions involving halogens

Eg: Cl2 (aq) + NaI (aq) → ……………….. + …………………….

 Precipitation reactions

•A reaction in which a precipitate is formed

i. Use in Chemical tests

Eg: Ca(OH)2 (aq) + CO2 (g) → ……………….. + …………………….

Na2SO4 (aq) + Bacl2 (aq) → ……………….. + …………………….

NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) → ……………….. + …………………….

ii. Use in working out chemical equations
•The precipitation reaction between aqueous solutions of lead nitrate and potassium iodide could be used to
workout a chemical equation

Word Equation:
………..…………………………. + …………………………….. → …………………….…………… + ………….…………………..
Method
▪ place the same volume off potassium iodide solution in a series of test tubes
▪ add different volumes of lead nitrate into the tubes
▪ Centrifuge the tubes for the same time
▪ measure the depth of precipitate in each tube
▪ Concentration of both solutions would be 1mol/dm3
Observation

• There is no increase in the amount of precipitate from tube 5 to tube 6

• This shows that the reaction is incomplete in tubes 1, 2, 3 and 4 but complete in tube 5
• The amounts of the reactants can be calculated as follows and the equation can be built up

•………………………….. + ………..………………. 🡪 ……………….…….. + ………………………….

Chemical Calculations
Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)

• Relative atomic mass is the average mass of one atom compared to

one twelfth (1/12) of the mass of one atom of carbon-12

• Mass of H is 1.67 x 10-24 g which is very small

• So a scale of relative masses are used
• The masses of atoms are compared with the mass of C-12 isotope
known as C-12 scale
• Mass of 12 1H atoms = mass of 1 12C atom
• So basic unit of C-12 scale is 1/12 mass of a 12C atom
Question 1

• F weighs 19 times as 1/12th of 12C atom. What is the RAM of F?

• RAM is also calculated considering isotopes

Relative Isotopic mass

- Mass of one isotope compared to 1/12th of the mass of

one atom of C-12
• The table shows the mass numbers and abundances of naturally-occurring copper isotopes.

Mass number Abundance

63 69%
65 31%

• Calculate the relative atomic mass of copper. Give your answer to 1 decimal place
• The table shows the mass numbers and abundances of naturally-occurring boron isotopes.

boron-10 23
boron-11 100

Calculate the relative atomic mass of copper. Give your answer to 1 decimal place.
 Relative Molecular mass (Mr)

- The weighted average mass of a molecule (Both elements and compounds) compared to 1/12th
of the mass of one atom of C-12
- The term “molecule” should only be used for covalent molecules
- For ionic substances use “Relative Formula Mass”
- Calculated by adding relative atomic masses

Relative Formular mass (Mr)

- The weighted average mass of a formula compared to 1/12th of the mass of one atom of C-12
- Used for compounds with giant structures
Percentage by mass of a compound

▪ When using chemical formula, it is possible to calculate the percentage composition of the
element

▪ This can be useful when extracting metals from ores or when making fertilizers for specific
plants

Example:
•Calculate the percentage of C by mass in CaCO3
 Molar Mass (M)

- This is the mass in grams of 1 mole of a substance

- Unit: gmol-1
- Molar Mass for a compound can be calculated by adding up the mass numbers (from the
periodic table) of each element in the compound
 Mole

▪ The mole is the amount of substance in grams that has the same
number of particles as there are atoms in 12g of C-12
▪ The symbol for the unit mole is mol
▪ The mass of one mole of a substance in grams is numerically
equal to its relative formula mass(Mr)/ relative atomic mass(Ar)
Avogadro Constant (L)

•There are 6.02 x 1023 atoms in 12 grams of C-12

• Therefore 1 mol of any specified entity (atoms, molecules, ions or
electrons) contains 6.02 x 1023 of that entity
Calculate the number of aluminium ions present in 0.051g pf aluminium oxide
Empirical formula

∙ It is the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element in the compound

∙ Steps:

1. Divide each mass (or % mass) by the atomic mass of the element
2. For each of the answers from step 1 divide by the smallest one of those numbers
3. Sometimes the numbers calculated in step 2 will need to be multiplied up to give whole
numbers. These whole numbers will be the empirical formula.
Molecular formula

▪ This is the actual number of atoms of each element in the compound

▪ From the relative molecular mass (Mr) work out how many times the mass of the empirical
formula fits into the Mr
▪ The Mr does not need to be exact to turn an empirical formula into the molecular formula
because the molecular formula will be a whole number multiple of the empirical formula
▪ Mr of a substance can be found out from using a mass spectrometer. The molecular ion peak will
be equal to Mr
1. 1.68g of iron is combined with 0.48g of oxygen. What is the empirical formula of the new compound?

2. A sample of compound contains 0.78g of K, 1.10g of Mn and 1.28g of O. Calculate the empirical formula of
the compound. Ar (K) =39, Ar (Mn)= 55 and Ar (O)= 16

3. A compound has the empirical formula CH2. The relative formula mass is 42. Work out the molecular
formula of the compound. Ar(H) = 1 and Ar(C) = 12
4. Heating of hydrated salts that contain water of crystallization form anhydrous salts. A student uses hydrated
barium chloride (BaCl2nH2O) to determine the empirical formula and obtained the following results. Workout the
empirical formula of barium chloride (Hint: Find n of BaCl2nH2O) Mr(H20) = 18 and Mr(BaCl2) = 208

Mass of empty crucible (g) 40.00

Mass of crucible + barium chloride crystals (g) 42.44
Mass of crucible + Content at the end of the experiment(g) 42.08
Limiting Reagent

The reactant that gets consumed first in a chemical reaction and therefore limits how much
product can be formed.

Example:
a. Find the limiting reagent
b. How much of product is formed?
 Percentage Yield

▪ Although no atoms are gained or lost in a chemical reaction, it is not always possible to obtain the
calculated amount of a given product
▪ Reasons for the mass of product made is less than the maximum theoretical mass include

✔Reaction not going for completion – because it is reversible

✔Side reactions taking place where the starting materials are changed into unwanted products
✔Loss of product during purification or transferring form one container to another

▪ Knowing the percentage yield is important to;

✔ Access sustainability of industrial processes

✔ Find the availability or scarcity of non- renewable raw materials
✔ Find the cost of raw materials
✔ Quantity of energy needed
Theoretical yield
•Maximum possible mass of a product that is made in a chemical reaction

Actual yield
•Mass obtained by weighing the product obtained (without calculations)
 Copper(II) oxide can be reduced to copper by heating the oxide carefully in a stream of hydrogen.
CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O

5.0 g of copper(II) oxide where heated in hydrogen until there appeared to be no more change in colour.
Any unreacted copper(II) oxide was dissolved in dilute sulfuric acid and the copper filtered off, dried and weighed.

Calculate the maximum quantity of copper you could obtain

If 2.91 g of copper was actually obtained, calculate the percentage yield of the reaction.
Atom Economy

•Some atoms in the reactants may not end up in the desired product, instead they form other products
(by- products)
•The atom economy of a reaction is a measure of the amount of starting material that end up as useful
products
Reaction types and atom economy
∙ Addition reactions have 100% atom economy
∙ Elimination and substitution reactions have lower atom economies
∙ Multi step reactions may have even lower atom economies
The following reactions have been used in the chemical industry to make liquid and solid products, allowing
any gaseous products to escape into the atmosphere; Which reaction has an atom economy by mass of 56%?

A. CH3OH(g) + CO(g) → CH3COOH(l)

B. CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
C. CH4(g) + 3Cl2(g) → CHCl3(l) + 3HCl(g)
D. CH2CH2(g) + Cl2(g) → CH2ClCH2Cl(l)`
Molar Gas Volume (Vm)

•1 mol of any gas at room temperature( 250C/ 298K) and pressure

(1 atm/ 1.01 x 105 Pa) will have a volume of 24dm3 (24000cm3)

Vm = 24dm3mol-1 = 24000cm3 mol-1

• The volume of a gas can be calculated by

Ideal Gas Equation

P = pressure (Pa)
v = volume (m3)
n – moles
R = 8.31 J/mol/K
T = temperature (K = 0C + 273)
Concentrations of solutions
•
∙ A solution is a mixture formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent
∙ When water is used as the solvent it is called an aqueous solution
 Parts per million (ppm)

• Parts per million is a measurement of the concentration of a solution

• For a very dilute solutions, weight/weight (w/w) and weight/ volume (w/v) concentrations are sometimes
expressed in ppm
• 1 ppm is one part by weight or volume of solute in 1 million parts by weight or volume of solution
In (w/v) terms; 1 ppm = 1 gm-3 = 1 mgL-1 = 1 μgmL-1
In (w/w) terms; 1 ppm = 1 mgkg-1 = 1 μg g-1
A solution has a concentration of o.033gkg -1. What is its concentration in ppm?
Dilutions
•Diluting a solution will not change the amount of moles of
solute present, but increases the volume of solution and
therefore the concentration will be low

•Since the moles are same,

Double Salts

a salt that contains more than one cation or more than one anion and is obtained by a combination of
two different salts which were crystallized in the same regular ionic lattice
QUESTIONS??
THANK YOU