UNIT 42. THE NORMAN CONQUEST. FRENCH INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

BORROWINGS AND CALQUES

The topic selected for this official competitive exam is topic number 42. So as to provide a coherent
development of its content, we have adhered to the name of the topic and have divided it into
three main sections. In the first section, we will summarise the historical background before the
Normans came to Britain. In section two, we will go knee-deep into the Normanization of England,
its consequences, and the decline of Norman Britain leading to a general adoption of English. In
the last section, we will show the changes made in the English language because of the influence
of French in terms of borrowings and calques. We will put an end to this topic with a conclusion, the
didactic implications that this topic has in the secondary classroom, and the bibliography consulted
for its elaboration.
Before starting to analyse aforementioned sections in this topic, we would like to justify why it is worth
writing and reading. The English language is not merely the product of the dialects brought to
England by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. Many of the words that we use in the English language
today have their root in French. Therefore, this unit aims to provide a detailed account of the impact
of the Norman Conquest and examines to what extent we can talk about the influence of French
on the English language on the basis of loanwords and calques, that is the process of borrowing.
The Norman Conquest, which occurred in 1066, was a pivotal moment in English history, as it brought
about significant changes in the English language and culture, making the study of this period and
its linguistic impact essential for understanding the development of the English language. It can also
help us better understand not only the social and cultural context of medieval England, and the
role that language played in shaping the society of the time but also the importance of cultural
exchange and language contact in shaping the development of language and culture.
Bearing in mind that this topic deals with the origin and evolution of the English language, this topic
is related to other topics in the set, namely topics 41, 43, and 44.
1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

At the beginning of the 5th century, according to Algeo & Pyles (1988), there was an economic
crisis which led to the collapse of money economy in the British Isles. Under Vortigern’s rule, king of
the Britons, the crisis was accentuated by the lack of coordination among the local chieftains, and
the repeated attacks of the northern tribes. Therefore, Vortigern invited continental Germanic
people to settle in Britain and act as mercenaries, but some came in search of land as invaders.
These Germanic people (the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) continued to arrive throughout the 5th and
6th centuries forming the kingdoms of Essex, Sussex, and Wessex.
The consolidation of the Germanic settlement had both linguistic and cultural consequences. For
instance, linguistically speaking, a variety of Northwest Germanic replaced the original Celtic
language used on the island, which is said to be the origin of English. Besides, the religion of the
Germanic people was introduced, and the original political organizations of the Celts were
replaced by institutions of a Germanic character. Under their rule, we can talk about the formation
of the Anglo-Saxon heptarchy: Essex, Sussex, Wessex, East Anglia, Kent, Mercia, and Northumbria.
By the end of the 6th century, the Romano-British dominium had been replaced by these kingdoms
and a homogeneous civilization was then extended over the whole area including a single
language (englisc).
In the 8th century, under the kingdom of Offa, the decline of the Anglo-Saxon England started. He
maintained a close relationship with Germanic European kings, but the prosperity of his kingdom
(Mercia) came to an end after the Battle of Ellendum which gave victory to king Egbert (Wessex).
Then, the new invaders were just to arrive to the British Isles.
During the 8th and 9th centuries, as seen in Baugh & Cable (1993), the Norse and the Danes, also
called the Vikings, moved to England and to the rest of the continent due to the development of
new techniques in ship building, political instability in Norway and Denmark, and love for adventure
and discovery of new lands. The invasion started first with the aim of pillaging but later it was the
search of land to settle down. The Norse approached the east part of the isle but only raided;
instead, the Danes plundered the south-western coast of England until king Alfred the Great
defeated them in the Battle of Edington, which secured peace in Wessex and forced the Vikings to
remain in Mercia and East Anglia.
The second wave of migrations took place under the rule of Cnut who, despite his Scandinavian
origin, respected the Anglo-Saxon religion, law and institutions, and even promoted the autonomy
of the different Anglo-Saxons shires by appointing earls to rule the provinces. He is also well-known
for having promoted the establishment of the Benedictine Reform movement, which was brought
by French monks and implied the revival of learning and culture, and the reformation of religious
life.
In the 10th century, a new wave of Vikings appeared and defeated the Anglo-Saxons in the Battle
of Maldon (991). The Viking leader signed a treaty by which he undertook to keep peace in return
for provisions and money. The Scandinavians did the same, but this time forced the Anglo-Saxon
leaders to buy peace at even higher prices than before.
The succession of Cnut was restored, eventually in 1042 by the original Anglo-Saxon line in the figure
of Edward, son of Ethelred, who had been brought up in the Norman court. His reign brought the
decline of the kingdom due to several factors: he did nothing to improve the law, administration,
and defence abilities; his monastic ideas of chastity led to future problems of succession; and he
promoted rivalry by appointing Normans to important positions in his court, administration, and
Church. These factors found the opposition of the powerful Anglo-Saxon lord Harold Godwin, who
had been the real ruler of England.
After this brief but detailed background, we shall move on to one of the core sections of this paper.
2. THE NORMAN CONQUEST

The Normans were Scandinavians who settled along the northern coast of France in the 9th and
10th centuries, founding the French dukedom of Normandy and raising it to a position of great
influence.
In 1066, Edward the Confessor died childless, so this implied new problem of succession because
there were three claimers to the throne: Harold II (Godwin’s son) who belonged to the Saxon
lineage and had the support of the people; Harold Hardrada, king of Norway; and finally, William
Duke of Normandy who was the cousin of Edward. Summing up, Harold II ran northwards and bet
Hardrada in the Battle of Stamford Bridge, and few days later, he went southwards to fight against
William. Eventually, William defeated the Anglo-Saxons with a great army in the Battle of Hastings in
1066. It is at this point that the history of England and the English language open a new period in its
timeline and prepares the ground for the Norman Conquest and the influence of French on the
English language.
The Battle of Hastings is the most well-known date in the English history because it brought the Anglo-
Saxon lineage to an end, and it led to the establishment of the Norman social structure, economy,
culture, and language in English territory. As a result of the battle of Hastings, William was crowned
king of England. Until his death, he worked tirelessly to consolidate the victory over the whole
territory with violence, and when the Saxons rebelled, he obliterated the uprisings mercilessly. In
addition to, he built castles and forts, many of which, such as the Tower of London, are still in
existence today.
According to Ager (2012), there were several consequences. First of all, political consequences
were felt because William still owed allegiance to France and thus, he spent most of his time there,
which began the tradition of the king’s servants representing the king while he was away. Another
political change was the formation of Anglo-Norman feudalism, whose main features are vassalage
and fragmentation of authority which meant that the king distributed the land among his barons,
and they divided their own sections to their vassals as well. Besides, the Witan (the council of the
Anglo-Saxons) was replaced by the commune Concilium, which was formed by baronial councillors
who were bound to the king by feudal ties.
These changes led immediately to social ones because of the fragmentation of authority in the
feudal pyramid, where all the classes, and everyone, were led by the King. Despite the apparent
peaceful coexistence of Normans and the English, the king passed land from those Englishmen who
died at Hasting to Norman hands, which accelerated the substitution of the nobility. In addition,
Normans were also introduced in all important positions of the Church as prelates (the Archbishop
of Canterbury) and as priests. Besides, merchants and craftsmen from the continent arrived in the
island and settle in cities and towns.
Regarding economic consequences, because of the imposed Norman feudal system, in 1085 King
William ordered the elaboration of the Domesday Book so as to control the possessions of each
nobleman and to facilitate cashing the territorial taxes. This book is considered as an important
document because it is a basic resource for research on Anglo-Norman linguistic relationships.
Linguistically speaking, French became the language of law, estate affairs, and literature, and the
noble people all over Europe knew, in addition to their own language, French. Before 1150, the
changes were related to the new social hierarchy and, gradually, the lower classes became familiar
with French through contact with the French speaking nobility: ‘baron, noble, dame, and servant’.
Even so, the largest group of influence was the Church, where the necessity of doctrine and belief
accounted the frequent transference of words: ‘cardinal, clergy, prior, and miracle’. Moreover, the
members of the French ruling class used their language so that French remained the language of
the upper classes even though they picked up some knowledge of English gradually. At first, those
who spoke French were of Norman origin, but soon, through intermarriage and associations with
the ruling class, many people of English origin found it useful to learn the new language as their
promotion was conditioned by their ability to speak/read French. However, there were far more
French words introduced into English than English words into French, because English was of an
inferior culture.
2.1 the decline of Norman Britain

The 13th century held some events which led to the loss of Normandy and the loss of prestige of
Norman-French and Anglo-Norman, as seen in Burnley (1992). First of all because the Dukes of
Normandy were at war with France, leading to the separation of England and Normandy.
Secondly, properties in French soil of the barons living in England were confiscated, so those having
properties on both sides of the Channel had to decide which one to keep. As a result, it gave the
Norman nobility a new collective feeling of their insular identity, and soon considered themselves
as English. This event established a community of interests with the English-speaking lower classes
which later resulted in a reaction against the continental Norman-French. Yet, this nationalistic
feeling did not extent to the King and his courtly nobility. Therefore, the French nobility at court
oppressed the English rural nobility leading to the Barons’ War (1264-67), in which the English rebelled
so as to claim greater participation in and supervision of royal government. In the aftermath of the
War, since the victorious English were defected from England, Prince Louis VIII and Henry III, signed
the Treaty of Lambeth providing amnesty for the English rebels and restoring the monarchy under
the rule of Henry III.
On the other hand, linguistically speaking, those who had been accustomed to speaking French
were turning more and more to the use of English, whether to make up for deficiencies in their
command of the language, or to use a word long familiar to them. In changing from French to
English, they transferred much of their legal, ecclesiastical, and military terms; words of fashion, food,
and social life; and the vocabulary of art, learning and medicine. All in all, after 1200 there is a
surprising increase of borrowings (around 10.000) which affected all grammar categories as well as
domains of communication such as legal affairs (parliament, treaty, perjury), ecclesiastical learning
(faith, sermon, preach), fashion (jewel, dress), meals (pork vs pig) and social life. Linguistically
speaking, the loss of prestige of Norman French and Anglo-Norman reinforced the functional use
of English.
 2.2 general adoption of English

During the 14th and 15th centuries, according to Crystal (1995), new historical events reinforced
the national feeling which had ensued the loss of Normandy and led the inhabitants of the island
to a general adoption of English. On the one hand, the Hundred’s Year War came up due to the
question of succession to the French crown (King Edward of England) against the House of Valois
(King Philip of France). This war made people realize that French was the language of the enemy
court, so it developed a national consciousness and a general feeling of hatred against France. On
the other hand, the bubonic and pneumonic plague reached England and killed almost half of the
inhabitants of Britain. The effects of the Black Death were felt at all levels: drastic reduction of land
under cultivation, which implied the ruin for many landowners; and the lack of labour meant a
general rise in wages for peasants so that a new stratification of society was necessary. This implied
a new and higher status to the lower and middle classes, whose native language was English.
Eventually, these classes rebelled against the Statute of Labourers in what is known as the Peasants’
Revolt, which contributed to increase the social relevance of the labouring classes and conferred
importance on their native language which was English.
The use of French vanished because the English nobility was nothing but English. At this time, since
the users of French tried to communicate in English, a great deal of French words was introduced
into the English language. Outside the court, the use of French was reduced to the language of the
educated and elitist, lawyers, and clergymen. As a result of this tendency, in the 15th century French
was increasingly ignored, even among people of position. Nevertheless, French was for so long a
mark of social prestige and the language of culture and fashion. Therefore, the English learned
French, especially from the 18th century onwards, proved by the fact that French borrowings have
continued to be incorporated up to the present time.
Once we have understood the historical overview of how the Norman Conquest changed not only
society but also the language, let’s jump on to another core section.
3. IMPACT OF FRENCH ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

According to Ager (2012), at least 30% of the modern English vocabulary is directly borrowed from
French. Words like “prince,” “joyful,” and “beef” come from the French language, as well as
common terminology in the military, legal, technological, and political fields. For example, the
words “army,” “parole,” “telephone,” and “regime” all have their origins in the French language.
We must consider that French words are usually longer and often have a more formal meaning.
Nevertheless, sometimes they acquired a different connotation, for instance: ‘stench’ from OE
means “unpleasant smell” in contrast with ‘scent’ from French meaning “pleasant smell”.
Sometimes, French borrowings filled a gap in the English language but, most of the times,
duplication took place, introducing meanings that were already expressed by an English word. In
such cases, one of the two words was eventually lost: lood from OE - people from French.
In addition, there are words in Old English and French referring to the same thing but in different
contexts; for instance: pig and cow in OE for the animals, and porc and boeuf in French for their
meat. However, most French borrowings can be recognized as such since they did not suffer any
modifications at all: ‘garage, unique, queue, route, menu, prestige, etc’.
According to the impact of French on grammar, there was a reduction of vowels in unstressed final
syllables which led to the decay of the inflectional endings, for instance nouns became uninflected,
the dual number and the grammatical gender were lost, and the number in adjectives
disappeared, being the genitive Saxon the only one left. Moreover, many adjectives were
borrowed together with the French position of noun plus adjective, which can be seen in
Shakespeare’s words “poem unlimited”. Besides, the usage of the verb ‘to do’ as an auxiliary verb
in negative and interrogative sentences appeared.
Additionally, there was a decay of traditional habits of word formation (prefixation, suffixation and
compound making) which led to the loss of many native words and the addition of many Latin and
French loanwords. These grammatical changes were borrowed indirectly through the use of spoken
French in England since most of the English people were uneducated and it made easier for them
to learn French.
French spelling helped transform Old English into the modern English we speak today. As this
author indicates in his article, in the 15th century, Middle English began a process of stabilisation
thanks to the printing press and the changes caused by scribes when copying manuscripts. William
Caxton, the first English printer, translated most of his works from French, so he began to regulate
the spelling of English. As far as consonant changes, there was a return to early conventions: the
initial ‘c’ was replaced either by ‘ch’ (cild-child) or by ‘k’ (cyng-king), ‘cw’ became ‘qu’ (cwene-
queen), ‘sc’ changed to ‘sh’ (sceal-shall), ‘hw’ became ‘wh’ (hwenne-when). There was also a shift
from OE ‘f’ to ME ‘v’ (drifen-driven). Finally, a true innovation was the substitution of the yogh ‘Ȝ’
existing in Old English for the French symbol ‘g’, as in ‘age’ or ‘gem’. As far as vowels changes, the
‘u’ is replaced by “ou” (huse-house); many long vowel sounds were marked by a double letter
(boc-book); and the long ‘a’ vowel of Old English became an ‘o’ in Middle English (stan-stone).
Moreover, French is known for having very different pronunciation rules than English, but most
people don’t realize that English also borrows some French pronunciation rules. Some vocal sounds
that French has contributed to English include the “g” sound in “mirage,” the “v” in “vacation,” and
the “z” in “zigzag.” French is a beautiful language to listen to, and its influences on English
pronunciation have added an additional layer of beauty in English.
French not only influenced the English vocabulary, grammar, spelling, and pronunciation, but it is
worth noticing that literature was also a cultural reference. Therefore, English writers based their
works on French originals, and they took many French words into their adaptations. For instance,
Chaucer was influenced by French works, such as the poem “Roman de la Rose” which he
translated as his work “The Book of the Duchess”. However, it can be appreciated that even though
English people were illiterate, his work “The Canterbury Tales” was written in Middle English, merging
Old English and Norman French. With the spread of Francophone culture, it’s currently estimated
that English speakers who have never studied French can still recognize about 15,000 words in
French. You may hear words like “cliché,” “déjà vu,” and “faux pas” in everyday speech, which
have been directly taken from French and haven’t changed at all.
After providing an analysis of this topic, we shall now summarise the information before offering the
didactic implications this unit has in the classroom.
4. CONCLUSION

We have seen the extent to which the English language has adapted and changed through the
centuries. There are a large number of words that have come into the language as a result of
borrowings and influences, and there will continue to be so. The English language is extremely rich,
in fact, the range of vocabulary can often be a source of difficulty for students. However, the wealth
of the language justifies the means, and it is to be expected that English will continue to borrow
from languages for whatever purpose it desires.
The Norman Conquest was a significant event in the history of the English civilization as it changed
the political organizations, customs, culture, and language of the inhabitants of the island. It can
be stated that the influence of this period was to a large extent confined to the word-stock. The
new French words were quickly assimilated and fused easily and naturally with the native elements
in English.
5. DIDACTIC IMPLICATIONS

The influence of French on English may be approached from a historical perspective to explore the
development of events that brings the influence of French words up to nowadays. Our students are
expected to know about the Norman influence since they are required to know about the culture
and history of England. There are several advantages to studying the Norman Conquest and the
influence of French on the English language in the secondary classroom:
Students will learn about the political and social changes that occurred during this time, and how
these changes impacted the development of language and culture in England. Also, learning
about the influence of French on the English language will expose students to many new
vocabulary words that are still in use today, which can help them expand their vocabulary and
improve their reading and writing skills. Besides, it can also introduce students to linguistic analysis,
which is the study of the structure and function of language, which can help them develop critical
thinking skills and an appreciation for the complexity of language. The Norman Conquest was a
pivotal moment in English history that marked a significant cultural exchange between England and
France. By studying this period, students can learn about the ways in which language and culture
are intertwined and how they influence each other. Finally, students can learn about the
contributions of different groups to the development of English and how language and culture
evolve through contact with other languages and cultures.
Overall, the study of the Norman Conquest and the influence of French on English can provide
students with a deeper understanding of language and culture, and help them develop critical
thinking skills and an appreciation for diversity and inclusion.
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ager, S. (2012). The Influence of French on the English Language

Algeo, J. & Pyles, T. (1982). The origins and development of the English language. 3rd ed. New York,
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
Baugh A. and Cable T. (1993). A history of the English language. 5th ed. London: Routledge.
Burnley, D. (1992). The History of the English Language: A Source Book. London and New York:
Longman.
Crystal, D. (1995). The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge
Univeristy Press.
Simon, A. (2012). The Influence of French on the English Language.