GONDWANA UNIVERSITY, GADCHIROLI

CHOICE BASED CREDIT SYSTEM (CBCS) SYLLABUS

PROGRAMME – BACHLOR OF SCIENCE (B.Sc.), SEMESTER – VI
SUBJECT – ZOOLOGY THEORY (CREDIT 2)
SKILL ENHANCEMENT COURSE (SEC)
PAPER – I –MEDICAL DIAGNOSTICS MAX. MARKS - 15

Unit I 1. Blood composition. 2. Blood group

(ABO type, Rh factor)
Unit II 1. Physical characteristics of urine, Normal and
abnormal constituent of urine.
2. Causes, types and symptoms of Diabetes
(Type I and Type II)
Unit III 1. Causes, types, symptoms, diagnosis and
prevention of Tuberculosis.
2. Causes, types, symptoms, diagnosis and
prevention of Hepatitis.
Unit IV 1. Types of tumours, Benign and Malignant.
2. Medical imaging : X ray, Ultrasonography, MRI, CT Scan
 SKILL ENHANCEMENT COURSE (SEC)
PAPER – I –MEDICAL DIAGNOSTICS

Blood composition and Blood group

 Causes, types and symptoms of Diabetes
There are two main types of diabetes: type 1 and type 2:
Type 1 diabetes occurs because the insulin-producing cells of the
pancreas (beta cells) are damaged. In type 1 diabetes, the pancreas
makes little or no insulin, so sugar cannot get into the body's cells
for use as energy. People with type 1 diabetes must use insulin
injections to control their blood glucose. Type 1 is the most
common form of diabetes in people who are under age 30, but it
can occur at any age. Ten percent of people with diabetes are
diagnosed with type 1.
In type 2 diabetes (adult onset diabetes), the pancreas makes
insulin, but it either doesn't produce enough, or the insulin does not
work properly. Nine out of 10 people with diabetes have type 2. This
type occurs most often in people who are over 40 years old but can
occur even in childhood if there are risk factors present. Type 2
diabetes may sometimes be controlled with a combination of diet,
weight management and exercise. However, treatment also may
include oral glucose-lowering medications (taken by mouth) or
insulin injections (shots).
The causes of diabetes
• Family history of diabetes
• African-American, Hispanic, Native American, or Asian-
American race, Pacific Islander or ethnic background
• Being overweight
• Physical stress (such as surgery or illness)
• Use of certain medications, including steroids
• Injury to the pancreas (such as infection, tumor, surgery
or accident)
• Autoimmune disease
• High blood pressure
• Abnormal blood cholesterol or triglyceride levels
• Age (risk increases with age)
• Smoking
• History of gestational diabetes
• The symptoms of diabetes include:

• Increased thirst
• Increased hunger (especially after eating)
• Dry mouth
• Frequent urination
• Unexplained weight loss (even though you are eating
and feel hungry)
• Weak, tired feeling
• Blurred vision
• Numbness or tingling in the hands or feet
• Slow-healing sores or cuts
• Dry and itchy skin
• Frequent yeast infections or urinary tract infections
Causes, types, symptoms, diagnosis and prevention of Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB), one of the most common infections in the world, is seen in both adults
and children. A communicable disease caused by a bacteria called Mycobacterium
Tuberculosis, the symptoms will only show only when the infection becomes active, which
may take several weeks. The phase when an infected person does not show any symptoms
is called inactive tuberculosis or latent tuberculosis infection.Though known to infect the
lungs, Tuberculosis can infect any organ; and even a person with a healthy immune system
has a 10% chance of contracting the disease
Common symptoms
• Cough that lasts for more than 2 weeks with a green, yellow or bloody sputum
• Weight loss
• Fatigue
• Loss of appetite
• Fever
• Chills
• Night sweats
• Chest pain
• Shortness of breath
• Additional symptoms can also show if the disease has spread beyond the chest
and lungs. For example, if lymph nodes are infected, there will be swelling of
glands at the sides of the neck or underarms.
• Causes of Tuberculosis
• Travelling/ living in places where TB is prevalent
• People with substance abuse problem
• People with weak immunity system and those suffering
from grave illness such as HIV
• Health care workers who are exposed to patients with
active TB
• People suffering from diabetes, kidney disease,
malnutrition
• People who have been using steroids for a long time
• Pregnant women and people undergoing radiotherapy are
at a higher risk than others.
• TB infection (latent TB)
• A person can have TB bacteria in their body and never develop symptoms.
In most people, the immune system can contain the bacteria so that they
do not replicate and cause disease. In this case, a person will have TB
infection but not active disease.
• Doctors refer to this as latent TB. A person may never experience
symptoms and be unaware that they have the infection. There is also no
risk of passing on a latent infection to another person. However, a person
with latent TB still requires treatment.
• The CDC estimate that as many as 13 million people in the U.S. have latent
TB.
• TB disease (active TB)
• The body may be unable to contain TB bacteria. This is more common
when the immune system is weakened due to illness or the use of certain
medications.
• When this happens, the bacteria can replicate and cause symptoms,
resulting in active TB. People with active TB can spread the infection.
• Without medical intervention, TB becomes active in 5–10% of people with
the infection. In about 50% of these people, the progression occurs within
2–5 years of getting the infection, according to the CDC.
• Diagnosis
• A person with latent TB will have no symptoms, but the infection
can show up on tests. People should ask for a TB test if they:
• have spent time with a person who has or is at risk of TB
• have spent time in a country with high rates of TB
• work in an environment where TB may be present
• A doctor will ask about any symptoms and the person’s medical
history. They will also perform a physical examination, which
involves listening to the lungs and checking for swelling in the
lymph nodes.
• Two tests can show whether TB bacteria are present:
• the TB skin test
• the TB blood test
• However, these cannot indicate whether TB is active or latent. To
test for active TB disease, the doctor may recommend a sputum
test and a chest X-ray.
• Prevention
• Ways of preventing TB from infecting others include:
• getting a diagnosis and treatment early
• staying away from other people until there is no longer a
risk of infection
• wearing a mask, covering the mouth, and ventilating rooms
• TB vaccination
• In some countries, children receive an anti-TB vaccination
— the bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine — as part of
a regular immunization program.
• However, experts in the U.S. do not recommend BCG
inoculation for most people unless they have a high risk of
TB. Some of the reasons include a low risk of infection in
the country and a high likelihood that the vaccine will
interfere with any future TB skin tests.
 Causes, Types, Symptoms, Diagnosis And Prevention Of Hepatitis

Hepatitis refers to an inflammatory condition of the liver. It’s commonly caused by a

viral infection, but there are other possible causes of hepatitis. These include
autoimmune hepatitis and hepatitis that occurs as a secondary result of medications,
drugs, toxins, and alcohol. Autoimmune hepatitis is a disease that occurs when your
body makes antibodies against your liver tissue.

Causes of noninfectious hepatitis

Alcohol and other toxins
Excessive alcohol consumption can cause liver damage and inflammation. This is sometimes
referred to as alcoholic hepatitis. The alcohol directly injures the cells of your liver. Over time,
it can cause permanent damage and lead to liver failure and cirrhosis, a thickening and
scarring of the liver.
Other toxic causes of hepatitis include overuse or overdose of medications and exposure to
poisons.
Autoimmune system response
In some cases, the immune system mistakes the liver as a harmful object and begins to attack
it. It causes ongoing inflammation that can range from mild to severe, often hindering liver
function. It’s three times more common in women than in men.
The 5 types of viral hepatitis
Viral infections of the liver that are classified as hepatitis include hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E. A different
virus is responsible for each type of virally transmitted hepatitis.
Hepatitis A is always an acute, short-term disease, while hepatitis B, C, and D are most likely to become
ongoing and chronic.
Hepatitis A
Hepatitis A is caused by an infection with the hepatitis A virus (HAV). This type of hepatitis is most
commonly transmitted by consuming food or water contaminated by feces from a person infected with
hepatitis A.
Hepatitis B
Hepatitis B is transmitted through contact with infectious body fluids, such as blood, vaginal secretions,
or semen, containing the hepatitis B virus (HBV). Injection drug use, having sex with an infected partner,
or sharing razors with an infected person increase your risk of getting hepatitis B.
Hepatitis C
Hepatitis C comes from the hepatitis C virus (HCV). Hepatitis C is transmitted through direct contact
with infected body fluids, typically through injection drug use and sexual contact. HCV is among the
most common bloodborne viral infections in the United States. Hepatitis D
Also called delta hepatitis, hepatitis D is a serious liver disease caused by the hepatitis D virus (HDV).
HDV is contracted through direct contact with infected blood. Hepatitis D is a rare form of hepatitis that
only occurs in conjunction with hepatitis B infection. The hepatitis D virus can’t multiply without the
presence of hepatitis B. It’s very uncommon in the United States.
Hepatitis E
Hepatitis E is a waterborne disease caused by the hepatitis E virus (HEV). Hepatitis E is mainly found in
areas with poor sanitation and typically results from ingesting fecal matter that contaminates the water
supply. This disease is uncommon in the United States.
 • Common symptoms of hepatitis
• If you have infectious forms of hepatitis that are chronic, like hepatitis B and C, you may
not have symptoms in the beginning. Symptoms may not occur until the damage affects
liver function.
• Signs and symptoms of acute hepatitis appear quickly. They include:
• fatigue
• flu-like symptoms
• dark urine
• pale stool
• abdominal pain
• loss of appetite
• unexplained weight loss
• yellow skin and eyes, which may be signs of jaundice
• Chronic hepatitis develops slowly, so these signs symptom
Tips to prevent hepatitis Hygiene
Practicing good hygiene is one key way to avoid contracting hepatitis A and E. If you’re traveling to a
developing country, you should avoid:
local water ice raw or undercooked shellfish and oysters raw fruit and vegetables Hepatitis B, C, and D
contracted through contaminated blood can be prevented by: not sharing drug needles not sharing razors
not using someone else’s toothbrush not touching spilled blood
Hepatitis B and C can also be contracted through sexual intercourse and intimate sexual contact. Practicing
safe sex by using condoms and dental dams can help decrease the risk of infection. You can find many
options available for purchase online. Vaccines
The use of vaccines is an important key to preventing hepatitis. Vaccinations are available to prevent the
development of hepatitis A and B. Experts are currently developing vaccines against hepatitis C. A
vaccination for hepatitis E exists in China, but it isn’t available in the United States.
• How hepatitis is diagnosed
• History and physical exam
• To diagnose hepatitis, first your doctor will take your history to determine any risk
factors you may have for infectious or noninfectious hepatitis.
• During a physical examination, your doctor may press down gently on your
abdomen to see if there’s pain or tenderness. Your doctor may also feel to see if
your liver is enlarged. If your skin or eyes are yellow, your doctor will note this
during the exam.
• Liver function tests
• Liver function tests use blood samples to determine how efficiently your liver
works. Abnormal results of these tests may be the first indication that there is a
problem, especially if you don’t show any signs on a physical exam of liver
disease. High liver enzyme levels may indicate that your liver is stressed,
damaged, or not functioning properly.
• Other blood tests
• If your liver function tests are abnormal, your doctor will likely order other
bloodtests to detect the source of the problem. These tests can check for the
viruses that cause hepatitis. They can also be used to check for antibodies that
are common in conditions like autoimmune hepatitis.
• Ultrasound
• An abdominal ultrasound uses ultrasound waves to create an image of the
organs within your abdomen. This test allows your doctor to take a close
at your liver and nearby organs. It can reveal:
• fluid in your abdomen
• liver damage or enlargement
• liver tumors
• abnormalities of your gallbladder
• Sometimes the pancreas shows up on ultrasound images as well. This can
be a useful test in determining the cause of your abnormal liver function.
• Liver biopsy
• A liver biopsy is an invasive procedure that involves your doctor taking a
sample of tissue from your liver. It can be done through your skin with a
needle and doesn’t require surgery. Typically, an ultrasound is used to
guide your doctor when taking the biopsy sample.
• This test allows your doctor to determine how infection or inflammation
has affected your liver. It can also be used to sample any areas in your liver
that appear abnormal.
 Medical imaging : X ray, Ultrasonography, MRI, CT Scan
• X-rays are the most used diagnostic imaging test and are widely
available. Even if you require more sophisticated body scans, it’s
likely you’ll receive an x-ray first.
• They are a form of radiation, and when passing through your body,
bone and other dense objects block the radiation and look white on
the film of the x-ray. The less dense tissues are hard to see and
appear gray. While limited exposure to radiation from x-rays isn’t
harmful, if you’re pregnant, the doctor will take special precautions.
Physicians use x-rays for diagnosing and assessing:
1. Disease or bone degeneration 2. Dislocations 3. Fractures 4. Tumors 5. Infections
There are two primary types of x-rays — soft and hard.
Soft x-rays - have fairly short wavelengths of approximately 10 nanometers
(nanometers are one-billionth of a meter). Therefore they can be placed in the
electromagnetic (EM) spectrum between gamma-rays and ultraviolet (UV) light.
Hard x-rays - have wavelengths of approximately 100 picometers (picometers are
one-trillionth of a meter) wavelengths. They occupy the same area as gamma-
rays on the EM spectrum.
• CT scan
• A CT scan generates high-quality, detailed images of the body. It’s a more
powerful and sophisticated x-ray that takes a 360-degree image of the spine,
vertebrae and internal organs. You may have a contrast dye injected into your
blood so the doctor can see your body structures more clearly on the CT scan.
• A CT scan creates detailed, quality images of bones, blood vessels, soft tissue
and organs and may be used to help the doctor diagnose medical conditions
such as:
• Appendicitis
• Cancer
• Trauma
• Heart disease
• Musculoskeletal disorders
• Infectious diseases
• CT scans are also used to detect tumors, and to evaluate lung or chest
problems. A CT machine looks like a big box with a tunnel inside its center. You
lie on a sliding table that slides you in and out of this tunnel as the machine
rotates around you and produces cross-section images of your body. Your
technologist performing the test will sit in a different room with computers
that will display the images. They’ll speak to you using a microphone and
speakers.
• CT scans are typically more expensive than x-rays and aren’t always readily
available at rural or small hospitals.
• What is an MRI?
• MRI stands for magnetic resonance imaging and
combines a strong magnet with radio waves. A computer
operates the magnetic components, creating incredibly
detailed images of body structures. The doctor views the
images as “slices” or cross-sections of the scanned body
part. Unlike x-rays, there’s no radiation involved. Doctors
use MRI scans frequently for diagnosing joint and bone
problems, as well as for assessing treatment progress,
looking into brain abnormalities and evaluating pelvic
pain or infertility issues.
 • What Is Ultrasonography?
• Ultrasonography is a relatively safe diagnostic medical procedure
where sound waves are introduced into the body using a
transducer. The sound waves bounce off the bones and tissues in
the body and produce a black and white image on a monitor. The
procedure is safe because it does not use ionizing radiation like an
x-ray or CAT scan, which should be avoided in pregnancy
Ultrasound is a useful way of examining many of the body's internal organs, including but not
limited to the:
heart and blood vessels, including the abdominal aorta and its major branches Liver,
gallbladder, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, bladder, uterus, ovaries, and unborn child (fetus) in
pregnant patients eyes, thyroid and parathyroid glands, scrotum (testicles) brain in infants hips
in infants spine in infants Ultrasound is also used to:
guide procedures such as needle biopsies, in which needles are used to sample cells from an
abnormal area for laboratory testing. image the breasts and guide biopsy of breast cancer (see
the Ultrasound-Guided Breast Biopsy page.
diagnose a variety of heart conditions, including valve problems and congestive heart failure,
and to assess damage after a heart attack. Ultrasound of the heart is commonly called an
"echocardiogram" or "echo" for short.
Doppler ultrasound images can help the physician to see and evaluate: blockages to blood flow
(such as clots), narrowing of vessels, tumors and congenital vascular malformations reduced or
absent blood flow to various organs, such as the testes or ovary increased blood flow, which
may be a sign of infection