For comprehensive discussions, visi¢ Youtube Channel: BeCueno THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION Theory -comes from the Greek word theoria which means “viewing”, thinking” or “reflecting” ‘formal statement of ideas that are suggested to explain a fact or event, or how something works” -an integrated body of assumptions, propositions, and definitions that are related in such a way so as to explain and predict relationships between two or more variables. Theories of crime causation- are abstract concepts that systematically describe the causes or genesis of crimes. These theories often provide empirical insights to anyone who ventures unto crime analysis. Foundations of Crime Causation Demonology Theory- earliest theory of crime causation that is grounded on the belief that criminals were possessed by evil spirit- a supernatural force beyond one’s control which compel them to commit crimes. Schools of Thought 1. Classical School- views crime as a product of free will, hedonism, and rational choice, Itanchors on the argument that human beings are endowed with free will and rationality, and that human actions are results of the rational calculation of the costs and benefits (rewards). Free will- It refers to human's freedom or capacity to act or decide in his own, Hedonism- Often known as “pain-and-pleasure principle” It fs a basie assumption that people engage on things that will make them happy and avoid things that gives them sufferings and pain. Rationality- means performing an act, or make a decision with sound judgment, logic, reasonableness, and often conformity with established societal norms. Utilitarianism- a philosophy developed by Jeremy Bentham. It means the “greatest happiness for the greatest number of people” Proponents of the Classical School a. Cesare Beccaria- an Italian scholar, philosopher, reformist who is widely recognized as the founder of the classical school. He rose into fame after he published his 17 pages essay entitled, “On Crimes and Punishment” in 1764 >. Jeremy Bentham- founder of utilitarianism, He was a British jurist, philosopher, legal and social reformer. He was crédited in the development of a Panopticon, a circular structure placed at the center ofa circular glass raot. It serves asa central tower where prison staffs can overall supervise surrounding cells To Bentham, human conduct can fallin either one of the following categories (Parekh, 2013): ‘© Morally Best- an action in which an individual pursues the greatest happiness of all those affected even at the expense of his own happiness * Less Moral- an action in which he pursues others’ happiness only when it promotes his own happiness as well * Minimally Moral- an action where an individual pursues his own happiness, taking care not to cause pain to others, but not pursuing thelr happiness either. ‘* Immoral- an action where an individual harms others 2. Neo-Classical School- from the word “neo” which means new. It argued that since children and lunatics are incapable of calculating pain and pleasure, they should be treated differently. 3. Positivist or Italian School- views crime as a product of the internal and external factors which are beyond one’s control. It implores science in explaining the causes of crime and proposed the idea of individualized treatment of offenders, Criminal offenders should be considered as part of and not apart from the society, Proponents of the Positivist SchoolFor comprehensive discussions, visi¢ Youtube Channel: BeCueno Dr. Cesare Lombroso- an army physician in Italy who is credited today as the “father of modern criminology”. He studied prisoners’ anatomical dispositions and correlated it with criminal's propensity to commit crime and published a book entitled “Criminal Ma Criminal Man- The first book which describes the causes of crime. It contains the argument that a criminal can be identified through his or her biological makeup or physical appearance. b, Enrico Ferri - a student of Cesare Lombroso, He argued that itis not only caused by anthropological or individual factors (eg. intelligence, age, sex, psychological makeup, etc.}, rather by sociological factors (eg. family circumstances, religion, societal status, etc.), and even environmental or geographical factors (e.g. weather condition, temperature, season, etc.) = He coined the term Criminal Sociology which incorporated the aforementioned factors of crime causation, ¢. Raffaele Garofalo- an Italian jurist, a politician, and a notable writer, was also a student of Cesare Lombroso. = He conceptualized the so called natural crime, those conducts that offend orviolated the twa basic moral sentiments- pity and probity. + argued that criminals are morally deficient and are therefore be eliminated from the society either through death penalty or other forms of incapacitation, BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION These are theories that link crime with human being’s physical or bialagical dispositions. Itclings on the idea that criminality has something to do with person's genetic blueprint 1, Theory of Atavism or Born Criminal = originated from the work of Dr. Cesare Lombroso- the father of modern criminology. = grounded on the belief that criminals are identifiable through their physical anomalies or stigmata, Lombroso asserted that unlike law abiders, criminals are having the appearance of pre-human forms- a primitive stage of evolution, Characteristics of an Atavistic Person Twisted or Flat nose Long arms in relation to their lower limbs Drooping eyes Large ears Protruding jaws 6. Sloped foreheads Dark skin, 8, (Small and deformed skulls Lombroso’s Classification of Criminals 1, Born Griminals- those with atavistic characteristics, 2, Insane Criminals- those having anatomical and biological abnormalities. These include imbeciles, idiots, as well as aleoholics, hysterics, and epileptics. 3. Criminals by passion- those who are triggered by emotional force such as love, anger, hatred, jealousy, and others. 4, Occasional criminals- those who commit crimes given the opportunity. This type of criminals has innate characteristics to commit crime. Occasional criminals are composed into four subtypes: inaloid- those who are easily swayed or tempted to do evil. Criminaloids are normal persons ‘who commit crimes under the pressure of circumstances. b. Epileptoid- those who are suffering from epilepsy, a neurological disorder. Habitual criminal- those who live normally but later on develop an undesirable habit (Le. gambling, drugs) which influence him to commit lifetime criminality. 4. Pseudocriminal- like criminaloids, pseudocriminals are normal persons. They only commit crimes ‘when the situation forces them to do so, A best example of this one is self defense.For comprehensive discussions, visi¢ Youtube Channel: BeCueno Physiognomy = dubbed as “face reading” = _ the study of the person’s personality traits or character based on facial appearance. Physiognomic Interpretations a, Men with big upper lips signified stupidity b, Fat nose like of the pig indicated stupidity Pointed nose like of the dog signified choleric temperament Lion-like nose implied generosity Persons with noses like the hawk or eagle were magnanimous Fine hair like of the rabbit and sheep indicated timidity Rouigh hair like of the lion or boar implied courage Fat ears like of the Ox implied laziness Phrenology or Craniology = thestudy of the characteristics, size, and shape or contours of the human Skull and its link to behavior. = Was popularized by German physician Franz Joseph Gall 4, Kretschmer’s Body Physiques = assumed that there is a link between the individual's physical, makeup.and his personality and that certain body builds correspond to certain temperaments. Four Types of Body Physiques a. Asthenic ~ are those persons who are thin, with narrow shoulders, flat chest, loose skin, and long limbs. Asthenic are shy, timid, introvert, with serious personality but with fondness in reading and studying, To Kretschmer, asthenic is likely to commitpetty theft and fraud. b. Athletic ~ people under this category are muscular and with strong development of the skeleton. The personality of being aggressive is linked to this type. Athletic people are prone to commit violence compared to asthenic. ¢. Pyknic — are those thatare fat with rounded bodies with fleshy arms and legs. This category is more likely to commit fraud and deception and sometimes violence. On the temperament side, pyknic people are into mood swings, who sometimes are happy and at other times are irritable and depressed, 4d, Dysplastic type (mixed type) - people who have no desired body physiques belong to this category. Kretschmer argued that individuals under this type are prone to commit crimes against decency and. morality 5. Somatotypes + Popularized by William Sheldon, an American psychologist who made his own version of body types which he termed somatoypes. a. Ectomorph - this is similar to Kretschmer’s asthenic body physique. Similarly, ectomorphs are thin or slender. Sheldon associated this type to cerebrotonic temperament with characters of being introverted, insomniac, full of complaints, sensitivity to noise and distractions, and self conscious. b. Endomorph - this is similar to Kretschmer’s pyknic body physique. Endomorphs are those whose body is fat, soft, and round, Its attributed to a viscerotonic type of temperament - extroverted, jolly, relaxed, lazy, comfortable, and sociable. ©. Mesomorph - the athlectic type in Kretschmer’s classification. Mesomorphs are characterized by dominated muscles, large hands and wrists, and heavy chest. Mesomorphs are somotonic having the characters of being active, aggressive, and dynamic 6. Karyotype Studies: The “Supermale” = this theory associated aggressive behavior and crime to abnormality in the chromosomal pattern of a person. The normal chromosome pair for male is XY; female on the other hand follows an XX pattern.For comprehensive discussions, visi¢ Youtube Channel: BeCueno ‘some males have an XYY pattern and some females have an XXX structure. This theory suggests that additional maleness brought by the extra “Y" chromosome (which makes "supermales") provides higher inclination for a person to commit heinous, violent crimes. 7. Family Studies a. Juke Family Tree = spearheaded by Richard L. Dugdale, a sociologist and a prison reformer. = Dugdale started his study onthe five daughters of Max juke, Ada, Bell, lara, Delia, and Bie. = Ada Juke who is better known to the public as “Margaret, the mother of criminals" = after tracing the family had out 709 descendants, 181 were prostitutes, 142 paupers and 106 illegitimate births b. Kalikak Family Tree + ByHenry H. Goddard, + *Kalikak” is a pseudonym originally from the Greek word “kallos" which means "beauty or good” and. “kakos” which means “bad” = The two separated names represent the two opposite characteristics of the Kalikak family=the good and the bad. = Involved Martin Kalikak, a revolutionary war soldier. Martin had two separate relationships which in ‘turned represents the “good offspring” and the “bad ofispring”.‘These relationships are the following: ‘© A Quaker (member of a Christian group known as Society of Friends) girlwhom he married and bore seven children. Upon tracing, Goddard discovered descendants who were teachers, doctors, lawyers, and judges ~ reputable professions in the society. These descendants considered to be the "good side" of the family tree. ‘* A feebleminded woman whom Martin Kalikak flirted, This infidelity resulted to an illegitimate son hhamed Martin Kalikak Junior who later rose into adulthood, married and fathered seven children, Goddard upon tracing the.*bad side” of the family tree found out descendants who were prostitutes, thieves, brothel owners, alcoholics, and licentigus individuals, Jonathan Edwards Family Tree = wasan exemplar of an ideal family structure. Jonathan who was married to Sara in 1727, was a famous Puritan preacher and once a president in Princeton College. = this family tree was traced by A.E. Winship. + none of the descendants was found to be criminal. Rather, many became judges, physicians, college presidents, mayors, vice president, senators, professors, and other vital positions in the society. 8, Twintstudies - This study was centered on studying twin pairs, investigating their distinct and similar behavioral patterns. The theoretical assumption was, if genes are inherited, then twins would likely exhibit the same set of behaviors. With this, researchers grouped twin pairs into two: MZ.- refers to identical twins. DZ refers to fraternal twins who are not identical, twins who share only half of their genes. = 52 percent similarity in behavioral patterns among MZ (identical twins) compared to DZ (fraternal twins} which has 22 percent only. 9, Adoption Studies + This study examined the life and behavior of the adopted children and correlated it with the criminal behaviors of the parents who adopted them and with their biological parents who send them away. = Adoption studies argued that criminal behaviors exhibited by adopted children were hereditary in nature 10, Hormones and Behavior = Hormones are chemical messengers inside the body of a person. It alfects psychological and physiological ‘human aspects including behavior, fertility, metabolism, appetite, puberty, and physical grawth,For comprehensive discussions, visi¢ Youtube Channel: BeCueno 12, Persons with high level of testosterone are prone i domestic violence, ‘+ Prisoners who were violent during their adolescence were found to have higher testosterone levels than those who were non- aggressive ones. ‘* Testosterone levels play a role in the development of aggression during adolescence. Higher quantity of testosterone is released during adolescent period. # Increase of testosterone is correlated with substance use, delinquency, as well as conflicts with authority figures, and promiscuity {indiscriminate sexual relation). itting domestic abuse, verbal and physical Food and Behavior poor diet is correlated with frustration, aggression, defiance, lack of discipline, poor self esteem, and depression Exercise entwined with improved diet and proper education could result|to decrease chances in al behavioral problems in later adolescence or adulthood Increased behavior problems when a person is exposed to synthetic colofings and flavorings, preservatives, cow's milk, and certain chemicals. Pregnancy, During and After Childbirth, and Behavior ‘© children delivered from the mother’s womb with high levels of birth complications were more aggressive than those with low levels. ‘© Children born prematurely showed learning disabilities, school problems, and impairment in attention, emotion, and language. ‘© Excessive consumption of alcoholic beverages, of pregnant women may result to fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD), which may lead to mental complications which may cause retardation in the mental aspect Smoking during pregnancy may lead to Conduct disordein children between 16 and 18years old. Depression, anxiety, stressed, and having history of depression during pregnancy are predictors of postpartum depression, This is a type of depression which occurs after pregnancy characterize by the feeling of being hopeless, without self importance, and sadness, Premenstrual Syndrome and Behavior Prior to menstruation, fluctuations occur as progesterone levels drop while the other hormones increase. ‘The abrupt change may lead to what is called premenstrual syndrome. Common effects of premenstrual syndrome are concentration problems, Inereased irritability, mood swings including aggression and depression. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION ‘These theories explain crime as ¢aused by mental, behavioral or emotional aspects. 1 Psychoanalytic Theory pioneered by Sigmund Freud views deviantor antisocial behavior asa result of underdeveloped or overdeveloped superego, Three Elements of Personality b. Id - refers to the instincts, or pleasure-seeking drives or impulses. This is present since birth. Id is the unconscious state of the mind of a person. ‘Superego - refers to conscience, It sets the moral standard in consonance with the norms of the society. It is developed at the age of five Ego - refers to the self. ts function is to balance or to mediate between the id and the superego in the context of reality. ‘Types of Personality Conflicts or AnxietyFor comprehensive discussions, visi¢ Youtube Channel: BeCueno Realistic anxiety ~ this refers to the feeling oF fear towards certain external object, situation, or action, that the society generally regard as a threat or dangerous to the concerned person. It is what a person feels when a criminal points the muzzle of his firearm towards him, b. Moral anxiety ~ this is a type of anxiety produced by the tensions between the ego and the superego. In certain times, the id provokes the ego to resort in unacceptable behaviors causing the superego to regulate the former. ¢. Neurotic anxiety - this is produced by the conflict between the id and the ego, This is felt when the impulses of the id overwhelms the ego. Frustration displacement, losing your temper, and drinking alcohol, are few examples of neurotic anxiety. Ego Defense Mechanisms a. Repression - the most fundamental defense mechanism. Iti referred to as "motivated forgetting” Denial - this refers to the refusal on the person to accept the reality ¢. Projection ~ in this defense mechanismthe ego attempts to resolve the tension oF discomfort of the individual by attributingthe undesirable thoughts, events, feelings, and motives to, another individual. It resembles with the act of blaming only that in literatures, the former is the most widely used word. 4. Regression - a defense mechanism of the ego in which the person reverts or moves backward in the earlier stages of development in order to cope with negative situations €. Isolation or Intellectualization - this refers to the ego defense mechanism which eliminates the feeling ‘or emotion associated with a threatening event, object, or person. The strategy is to become emotionless to pursue normal psychological function. {. Sublimation - this is the most mature defense mechanism which involves channeling the stress or pain through socially accepted behavior. & Displacement -a defense mechanism which is the exact opposite of sublimation. In here the person channels the pain ina socially unacceptable way. h. Reaction Formation - this is often called “believing the opposite”. A primitive version of sublimation, this ego defense mechanism changes tie anxiety-provoking or unacceptable impulses into acceptable ones. However, unlike sublimation, reaction formation, reverses the individual's conscious experience making him aware of the opposite feeling, |. Rationalization ~ a defense mechanism where the ego excuses an inappropriate behavior though gesture (often an explanation) that is more acceptable than the real and unconscious motive Introjection ~ an ego defense mechanism where the individual imitates tie characteristics of another to gainacceptance. Fixation = refers to either inadequate of excessive pleasure, or to the conflicts during the stages of psychosexual development in which the target of the sexual energy remains attached to an object associated with lower level of maturity it is the state of being confined or being stuck ina certain stage. Reasons for being “fixated” (stuck) in a Stage a, Inadequate fulfillment of the development needs in a certain stage which causes frustration, b. Excessive fulfillment of development needs which causes indulgence Stages of Psychosexuial Development a, Oral Stage (birth to 2 years)- In this stage of psychosexual development, the gratification of the infant focuses on the mouth. Oral activities like eating, swallowing, biting and sucking give pleasure. b, Anal Stage (2 to 4 years)- In this stage, the focus of gratification is on the anal region which consists of the control and the release of feces. The ability of the child to control and heed on parental instruction as to bowel movement is the key in determining the personality styles of the infant when reaching adulthood. c. Phallic Stage (4 -5 years)- sexual attraction to the parent of opposite sex occurs and that parent of the same sex is considered as rival or competitor. Gender identity is learned by identifying and mimicking the same sex parent,For comprehensive discussions, visi¢ Youtube Channel: BeCueno Oedipus Complex- a term used to describe to a boy's feeling of jealousy towards their father and the feeling. of desire towards their mother, Castration anxiety- a term used to describe the boy's feeling of fear towards their father. In here, the boy assumed that his father will take revenge and punish him by castrating him. Electra complex- a term used to describe girl's desire of affection and love for their dad. However, unlike boys, Freud (1905) argued that girls are unable to experience castration anxiety. In this stage, girls experienced what Freud called as “penis envy”. Sigmund Freud believed that children do not recognize the external anatomical differences between males and females prior to the phallic phase. d_ Latent (latency) Stage (6 years to puberty)- This stage takes place when children are at the ages of six to twelve years. In this stage, the child realizes that desires and affections directed to the parent of ‘opposite sex {boy child to the mother, girl child to the father) are not feasible. The child shifts his focus towards social skills such as recreation and sports and becomes occupied with socializing with same-sex peers, refining roles, personal relationships, and sexual identity. ¢. Genital Stage (puberty and up ) - This stage commences when the child enters the period of puberty ~ a stage where the little girl or boy transitioned into adolescence becoming into a sexually matured and a reproductive ready individual. In this stage, there is an increase of sex hormones resulting to an increase of sexual desire with the opposite sex. 2. Self Control Theory + also known as General Theory of Crime which was formulated by Gottfredson/and Hischi (1990) + This theory argues that person with high level of self control are less likely to commit crime while those ‘who have inadequate self control are more likely to engage in criminal acts. 3. Frustration - Aggression Theory = also known as frustration ~ aggression hypothesis by Yale John Dollard, Neal Miller, Leonard Doob, Orval, Mowrer, and Robert Sears (1939) = atheory which blames aggressive behavior to events or circumstances which cause frustration, = _ frustration is a result of a goal being blocked or interfered: 4, Moral Development Theory = by Lawrence Kohlberg (1927 ~ 1928) = a theory which states that morality. progress through a series of stages. The sense of right or wrong is entwined with the person's progression to the stages. Delinquent behavior is a result of immaturity in moral development, Stages Level 1: Pre-conventional - in this level, actions and moral reasoning are primarily based on its psychological or physical consequefices such as punishment or reward. In here, a person acts in accordance to the authorities and adults’ societal interpretation of right or wrong, Stage 1 ~ moral actions are based on the abedience of the law to avoid punishment. Stage 2 - moral actions are based on self interest and sometimes to the interest of athers, Level 2: Conventional - in this level, moral decision making is based on establishing harmonious relationship with others, The former interpretation of punishment is no longer the only criterion of which to base the morality or immorality of an act, but instead an action is adjudged dependent to the expectations of the surrounding individuals, Stage 3 - moral actions are based on the approval or expectations of others. The person chooses to adapt a group and act in consonance with its culture, Stage 4 ~ the stage of law and order orientation. The individual recognizes the diversity within the society and view laws and behavioral percepts as necessary. Level 3: Post - conventional ~ in this stage, moral actions is based on the established principles of the person and moral reasoning is directed towards justice. Stage 5 - Laws are believed to benefit the greatest number of people (utilitarianism).For comprehensive discussions, visi¢ Youtube Channel: BeCueno ‘Stage 6 - this Is known as the universal ethical consideration. Laws are considered to be vital for the common good of the many (utilitarianism), however, sometimes there is a need for this to be overridden to benefit, thers and to adhere o self imposed principles. 5. Rational Choice Theory = assumes that people make rational decisions or choices if they think that such actions is perceived to maximize benefits and minimize losses, risks or costs Rationality- the capacity of a person to render decisions based on the dictates of reason, 6. LowIQ Theory = blames criminality to a defect in the cognitive aspect of a person, = The earliest proponent of this theory was Charles Goring (1870-1919) who after studying the mental characteristics of 3,000 convicts, argued that crime is not caused by the atavistic feature of man (which Lombroso theorized) but by defective intelligence which is hereditary in nature, 7. Personality Trait Theory = This theory by Gordon Allport (1897-1967) assumes that criminal/behavior iS, caused by certain personality traits of a person. + Unlike psychoanalytic theory which pinpoints deviant behaviors to have come fFom unconscious causes (overbearing or weak superego), personality trait theory posits that antisocial behavior comes mainly from personality, Levels of Traits Cardinal traits- these refer to the primary and dominant traits, the major personality description, something that are used to describe about the person, b, Central traits- these are major trails that are used to ordinarily describe a person, From the above example, a person who is sociable may manifests central traits such as kindness, hospitable, generous, and altruistic. © Secondary traits- these are personality traits that arise only to specific situations and are not dominant and are not integral part of personality, unlike central or cardinal trait. :ysenck’s Personality Theory = This theory was founded by Hans Eysenck (1964) which blames criminality to genetically inherited hervous system which behaves in a particular level of physiological arousal or temperament = Physiological arousal in/here may refer to how a person responds to his environment. Three Dimensions of Personality 1. _Introversion-extraversion- introverts are characterized of being thoughtful, quiet, reserved, calm, controlled, conforming, and passive. This kind of people avoids social interactions. At the opposite, extroverts are sociable, lively, outgoing, carefree, assertive, and active, Between the two, extroverts are riskeseeking and are more prone to commit crime 2, Neuroticism- stability - neurotics are characterized by being unstable, anxious, impulsive, restless, and moody. At the opposite, emotionally stable individuals are those that are relaxed and calm. 3. Psychoticism.. this is characterized of being cruel, non-conforming, insensitive, remorseless, and is prone to commit criminal tendencies. Other Psychological Theories 1. Psychodynamic Theory =" Itis the study of the interrelationship of various parts of the mind, personality, or psyche as they relate to mental, emotional, or motivational forces especially at the unconscious level. + The psychology of mental or emotional forces or process developing especially in early childhood and effects on behavior and mental states. Terms used to explain further the theory a. Jointness- is defined as dynamic process representing an emotional system for attachment and for communication between separate individuals who jointly approach each encounter between mother and infant, psychotherapist and patient, or any partners experiencing simultaneously mutual intimacy.For comprehensive discussions, visi¢ Youtube Channel: BeCueno ’b. Psychotherapy- is the use of psychological methods, particularly when based on regular personal interaction, to help change and overcome problems in desired ways. It aims to improve an individual's ‘well-being and mental health and to resolve or mitigate troublesome behaviours, beliefs, compulsions, thoughts, or emotions, and to improve relationships and social skills, 2. Behavioral Theory =" The theory propounded that human behavior is developed through the learning experience. = Ithas the notion that people alter or change their behavior depending on their environment + Children or people learn violence through the observation of others. = Aggressive acts are modeled in three primary sources: a) Family interaction 'b) Environmental experiences, and ©) The mass media, 3. Cognitive Theory = Inthis theory, the psychologist focus on the mental process of individuals: + explain criminal behavior as a defect in moral thinking, thought processes, and mental development. + a thought process that stores information, so that the information cat be interpreted correctly by a criminal. 4, Cognitive Dissonance Theory + refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors. This produces a feeling of mental discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs ar behaviars to reduce the discomfort and restore balance. = postulates that an underlying psychological tension is created when an individual's behavior is inconsistent with his or her thoughts and beliefs. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION ‘These theories seek to explain crime causation through social or surrounding conditions, associating crime with poverty, broken family, social disorganization, peer pressure, and others. 1. Differential Association Theory ~ maintains that the society is composed of different group organizations, the societies consist of a group of people having criminalistics and anti-criminalistics tradition and that criminal behavior is learned and not inherited. Sutherland's Nine Points on Differential Association Theory 1, Criminallbéhavior is learned, 2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication. 3, The principal part of the learning of eriminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups. 4, When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes: a. techniques of committing the crime, which is sometimes very complicated and sometimes very simple; and b. the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes. 5. The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable. 6. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of the law. 7. Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity. 8. The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-ctiminal patterns involves all the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning, 9, Although criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those general needs and values, because noncriminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values. According to Differential AssociationTheory (DAT) the learning process may be influenced by four factors such as: a. Priority- The associations that occur earlyFor comprehensive discussions, visi¢ Youtube Channel: BeCueno b. Duration- Last longer or occupy a disproportionateamount of one's time. Frequency: number of times/repetitions. 4. Intensity- Involve the intimate, closest, or most importantpartners/peer groups. 2. Anomie Theory = Advocated by Emile Durkheim. -Breakdown of social orders as results of loss of standards and values that replaced social cohesion, ‘A- Absence Nomos- Laws or standards. *Anomie- refers to the breakdown of norms. 2. Strain Theory = defined as the tension between social expectations and aspirations and the socially acceptable ways of accomplishing those expectations and goals. + ByRobert Merton + _ States that various strains or pressures increase the chance of criminal activity. These tensions result in Unpleasant emotions such as frustration and anger, among other things. Five Responses to Strain a. Conformity- Individuals are pursuing a societal aim by employinglegal means to achieve it. b. Innovation-Despite the fact that he or she shares the cultural aim of the society, the individual achieves this goal using unethical means. Thieves are innovators because they share the cultural objective of acquiring riches but do so by breaking the law example: To gain financial stability, one may resort to drug trafficking or stealing, Ritualists-Someone who has given up all hope of accomplishing society's acceptable aims, but who continues to function within the confines of society's appraved methods, using the same means to achieve less elusive goals (more modest and humble), A ritualist is someone who, for example, acknowledges that they will nevervadvance in, their current position but continues to work in that position. 4. Retreatists:individuals who have rejected both a society's goals and the legitimate means of obtaining them, and live outside conventional norms altogetier: It is the tendency of some people to withdraw from the society of which they are a par, rejecting both the goals and the means of achieving those goals An example of the high school to college transition, the retreatist might not graduate from high school, drop contact from family, ete. e. Rebellion: to reject the €ultural goals and means, then work to replace them. Rebels seek to replace society goals with their own, aswell as to design their own methods of achieving those goals driven by ideology, Terrorist organizations, which aim to achieve an objective, often political, using means such as violence, are the most visible instances of rebellion. 3. General Strain Theory (GTS) = Developed by Robert Agnew (1992). = refers to “relationships in which others are not treating the Individual as he or shewould like to be treated”, Objective strains- are events or conditions that are hated by the majority of the members of a certain group and are thus classified as such, Subjective strains-it is concerned with how a person perceives and reacts to a specific incident or scenario. ‘Therefore, when we say that individuals are subjected to subjective strain, we mean that they are subjected to an event or condition they dislike. In short term, strains are most likely to cause criminality when: (2) are seen as unjust; (2) are seen as high in magnitude; (3) are associated with low social control; and (4) create some pressure or incentive to engage in criminal coping.For comprehensive discussions, visi¢ Youtube Channel: BeCueno ‘Social Bond Theory = states that deviant behavior is caused by weak or broken bonds with the society = the bonds that are formed with prosocial people, prosocial institutions, and prosocial values, are the bonds that discourage deviant behavior. Components of Social Bonds a, Attachment - this is a bond which an individual establishes with the members or groups in the society (peers, family, school, church, organization, etc.). Poor relationship with these groups is instrumental to b. Commitment - this bond refers to the value or importance of the relationship which a person protects, People conform with the norms of the society so as not to look bad in front of peers, family, neighbors, or organizations whom he isa member of. Involvement - this bond requires the person to engage in pro social activities which in turn, diminishes hhis chances from committing a crime. This is because a person who is engaging in productive activities is technically not spending his or her time in anti-social matters. d, Belief - refers to the degree of trust or faith with the validity of the laws ahd regulations of the society. ‘Thus, the more a person has belief in the value of the law, the less likely for him to engage in crimes. 5. Containment Theory (Walter Reckless In 1960) = contends that a series of external social factors and internal)qualities effectively insulate certain individuals from criminal involvement even when ecological variables induce others to engage in crime. = _ It states that pushes and pulls are buffered by inner and outer containments. = Inner containment includes self-concept, goal orientation, frustration tolerance, and norm commitment and retention (ie, elements within the individual's self). The outer commitment includes the social environment in which the individual resides and reflects socialization within the community (Le, elements outside one’s self) 6. Interactional Theory = proposes that the fundamental or primary cause of delinquent behavior is a weakening of bonds to conventional society. = Tesuggests that societal, earning and delinquency factors all contribute to an individual's involvement in organized crime. - The theory further states that individuals with weak social bonds will form other bonds with other delinquents who share the same poor values, = Developed by Thornberry and Krohn 7. Situational Crime Prevention Theory = States that crime can be prevented not by altering the criminal’s disposition but rather altering the Situation that causes him to commit crimes. For example, a thief who has the inclination to steal may be deprived of an opportunity if a police officer is visible within his range. = Developed by Ron Clarke 8. Deterrence Theory = This theory asserts that if legal penalties are certain, swift, and severe, people will be deterred from committing crime, ~ although requires rationalization, gives more emphasis on a person's outlook of the pain of punishment. ‘Types of Deterrence a. General Deterrence - refers to the perception or occurrence where the general public is discouraged from committing the same crime after seeing someone being punished, For example, knowing a criminal being executed with death penalty through lethal injection, reduces the general public's motivation in committing crime. b. Specific Deterrence- this refers to the idea of discouraging the criminal from committing further crimes after receiving the punishment. For instance, a thief who had been in prison for years, may no onger commit the same.For comprehensive discussions, visi¢ Youtube Channel: BeCueno Components of Deterrence Theory 1. Severity- the intensity of legal punishment. 2. Certainty- the assurance that punishment is imposed to those who commit crime 3. Swiftness or Celerity- the promptness of legal punishment 9. Social Learning Theory = posits that criminal behavior is learned through exposure or socialization with others in the community. = Ithas parallelism with the concept of Sutherland's differential association theory, but believes that “the probability that persons will engage in criminal and deviant behavior is increased and the probability of their conforming to the norm is decreased when they differentially associate with others who commit criminal behavior and espouse definitions favorable to it. To simply put, one may engage in crime because of his or her association with the one who engages with the same. Major Concepts of Social Learning Theory a. Differential Association - this refers to the process whereby a person is exposed to what is called “normative definitions” which a person may view as favorable or unfavorable to legal or illegal behaviors (Akers, 1999) Components of Differential Association ‘© Interactional - refers to the direct process of association with others engaging in certain behaviors. This also includes the indirect association with other distant groups. ‘* Normative - this refers to the various values and norms which a person is exposed to in his association with a certain individual or group. b. Definitions - this refers to a person's meanitigs or interpretations towards a certain behavior. These are the “orientations, rationalizations, definitions of the situation, and other evaluative and moral attitudes that define the commission ofan act as right or wrong” Components of Definitions ‘© General - refers to religious or moral beliefs and other societal norms that are favorable to law conforming behaviors and are not favorable to deviance. ‘© Specific - refers to the individual's self orientation to a certain act or to a series of acts. For example, a person may believe that killing another is a violation of the law and is morally wrong, but at the same time rationalizing on the idea that there is little fault in petty theft or in illicit drugs. Interpretation usually varies depending upon how an individual defines a particular act. ¢. Differential Reinforcement - refers to the individual's process of weighing and anticipating the possible ‘outcomes of his or her actions. With this, behaviors are determined by foreseeing possible rewards or punishments. Components of Differential Reinforcement ‘= Positive Reinforcement - refers to those positive outcomes or pleasing reactions a person obtained from his or her performance of the act. Example, foreseeing the huge amount of money which one can have in the execution of bank robbery, may positively reinforce the individual to commit the same. Positive reinforcement can also be in the form of appreciation, awards, attract attention, increased social status, and other pleasurable feelings. ‘+ Negative Reinforcements - refers to those which remove the negative consequences if the act is performed. Example, suppose the teenager has been called by names such as, weird, cowardly, childish, or old fashioned, when he or she refuses to drink alcohol or use marijuana. If the experience ‘occurs in considerable repetitions, eventually, he or she will be into alcohol and marijuana, after which his circle of friends stopped from calling him or her with negative names, With this, the teenager's alcohol and marijuana use is negatively reinforcedFor comprehensive discussions, visi¢ Youtube Channel: BeCueno Imitation - refers to the process of adopting a behavior seen or observed from others, especially from those who are close to the person, In imitation, behaviors are mirrored from a model or group of models. 10. Labeling Theory + | This theory postulates that how a person behaves is dependent on how society labels him. ~ Itasserts that those individuals who are labeled as deviants or have been tagged with negative brands are likely more to amplify their deviancy, rather than reducing it, have it not been they are labeled with such 11, Routine Activity Theory by Cohen and Felson (1979) + views crime as a by-product of individuals’ responses to specific situations. Thavis, exposure to certain situations may influence a person to commit crime and alteration of individual's exposure may alter crime involvement. Routine activity - refers to the recurrent and prevalent activities which provide for basic population and individual needs...formalized work, as well as the provision of standard food, shelter, sexual outlet, leisure, social interaction learning and child -bearing Elements of Crime According to Routine Activity Theory ‘+ Motivated offender this refers to a person who is prepated in the commission of crime + Suitable target - this refers to either a human victim or things witich are the subject of the offense. # Absence of capable guardian - refers to any person who guards, supervises or protects targets from possible victimization, For instance, a house owner who lacks the door when he leaves his house, or someone who installs CCTV cameras to deter criminals, are examples of guardianship. 12, Life-Course Theory + concerned with three main issues: the development of offending and antisocial behavior, risk factors at Aifferent ages, and the effects of life events on the course of development. As a theory, denotation establishes the connection between a pattern of life events and the actions that humans perform. . Social Disorganization Theory = It asserts that people's actions aré more strongly influenced by the quality of their social relationships and their physical environment rather than rational thought. = It states that disorganized communities with high population turnover rates, diverse populations, and poverty are more likely to experience high levels of crime. - Thetheory directly links crime rates to neighborhood ecological characteristics. = _Itscore principle is that place matters. = Geveloped by Shaw and Mckay. 14, Imitation-suggestion theory iduals imitate the behavior of other individual hased on the degree of their association with other iduals. = Developed by Gabriel Tarde = The learning process may either be conscious type of copying (imitation) or unconscious copying (suggestion) of confronting pattern of behavior. 15. Conflict of Culture theory asserts that the multiplicity of incompatible cultures is the main source of social disorganization = Developed by Thorsten Sellin 16, Culture Deviance Theory + states that crime is correlated strongly to the cultural values and norms prevalent in society. + individuals may turn to crime not on account of any innate character traits, but because they are influenced by:For comprehensive discussions, visi¢ Youtube Channel: BeCueno The place they live in, + The people they are surrounded by, and «+ The socio-economic conditions of their micro-environment ‘Those three elements come together to form a unique subculture influencing the individual and their chances to turn to crime. the major tenet of cultural deviance theory is that conformity to the prevailing cultural norms of lower- class society causes crime. The lower-class subculture has a unique set of values and beliefs, which are invariably in conflict with conventional social norms. . Self-Derogation Theory Self-derogation theory predicts that low self-esteem motivates youths to try out delinquent activities that are aimed at restoring self-esteem. juveniles may become involved in delinquency as a response to negative self-attitudes. Other Sociological Causes of Crime 1, Lack of parental guidance 2, Broken homes 3. Influence of Mass Media 4, Peer pressure 5, Ete ‘THE THEORIES OF FEMALE OFFENDERS Feminist Theory examines the role of men and women in crime and deviance and how these sex differences influenced as to how they are treated, ‘his theory argues that crime is mostly interpreted in the context of male perspective and with this, crime notions are less applied to fertales. For instance, women who are into alcoholism and drugs are more negatively criticized compared to men doing the same. a. Liberal Feminism - focuses on the ideals of equality among sexes as well as the impact of the role of gender in political, economie, legal, and social aspects. This argues that women should be treated as. co-equal with men/as they inkerit the same capacity of reasoning and moral agency. It believes that gender inequality is the direct result of blocking the chances of women to be involved in various social aspects such as politics, education, employment, and others, b. Marxist Feminism - views gender inequality as a by-product of heirarchical set up between men and women viewing the former as having more control in the economic aspect compared to the latter. It argues that women perforthing housework is viewed as a form of oppression and the trivialization thereofis viewed as inequality. . Radical Feminism - blames women biology as the roat cause of patriarchy and gender inequality. ‘Thisis fueled by the existence of power relations in which male view themselves as superior over the females, It does not only focuses on the victimization of women but also on the contributions the ‘women offered to the society. 4. Socialist Feminism - this is similar to marxist feminism only that unlike the former which ranks class as the most important variable, socialist feminism treats gender and class as equally important, In addition, marxist feminism argues that gender inequality can be solve dthrough the elimination of capitalism while socialist feminism recommends for the improvement of micro and macro level conditions. . Post Modern Feminism - the contemporary form of feminism centering on the rejection of traditional male-female assumptions. Categorization of women as the minority for instance, is a traditional assumption and is therefore far from the universal truth. The hierarchical structure is argued to be a sacially constructed concept. £. Critical Race Feminism - studies on the interplay between gender and race. This form of feminism argues that oppression is not only caused by gender minority but also with racism.For comprehensive discussions, visi¢ Youtube Channel: BeCueno 2. Masculinity Theories (Freda Adler) = Asserts that women's crime had begun to change in both quantity and quality and that this was due not to analteration in women's nature but rather because of increased criminal opportunities for women, = Those women who cannot ‘adjust to their absence of and longing for a penis in culturally prescribed manner of dutiful sexual performance and motherhood, attempt to acquire symbolic masculinity by aggressively rebelling against their ‘natural’ feminine roles. ‘They deny their female role and femininity and identify with then male role and masculinity. In short ‘attempt to bea man’, ~The females who are involved with crime are dominated by male characteristics in their personality 3. Opportunity theories (developed by Rita J. Simon (1975)) = males are more active in crime because of their greater social opportunities, competences, and networking than females. In the broader social context, in female opportunity, efficiency and social communication are increased, then the rate of female criminality increases accordingly. = ‘when more women get access in labor market as skilled labor and possess highly specialized position in the job sector they commit more employment related property crime like men, Some women take the advantage of these opportunities, just as some men do before’. 4, Economic Marginalization theories (Daly and Chesney-Lind (1988)) = claims that more female participation in the labor force ddes not necessarily indicate either more gender equality or improved economic condition for women = To find out the causes of the majority of female. criminality it has been seen that their position is ‘marginalized by less salary, un-respectful occupation and less secured jab. = Women are motivated to commit erime as a rational response to poverty and economic insecurity. = This theory argues that the major causes of female crime are unemployment, poorly paid employment, inadequate welfare payments, and the increasing number of females headed households with large number of children 5. Chivalry theory = argues that historically there have been lower rates of female criminality because of the more lenient treatment of female offenders by criminal justice personnel, = females are more prone to violating the law but according to the economic standard they treated as less destructive in natures = Thus, female offences get less importance than male ones in the criminal justice system Biopsychosocial Criminology + isa multidisciplinary perspective that attempts to understand criminal behavior (and related ‘outcomes, like antisocial behavior and its consequences) by considering the interactions between biological, psychological, and sociological factors. © The biopsychosocial model was first proposed by George E. Engel and John R. Romano in 1977. ECONOMIC THEORIES OF CRIME 1. Theory of economic criminality States that crime is social in origin and a normal response to prevailing cultural conditions, © When capitalism emerges, there were social forces of competition and wealth, resulting in an unequal distribution of resources which also lead to individualism, Once self-interest and more egoistic impulses assert in a person, crime emerges, * Developed by William Adrian Bonger. 2. Marxist Theory = crime is caused by the conflicts between the three socio-economic classes capitalists (those who possess means of production and economic values), bourgeoisie (middle class) and proletariat (working class), = all classes commit crime but the crimes ofthe elite do more harm.For comprehensive discussions, visi¢ Youtube Channel: BeCueno ‘also argue that law enforcement is selective, working in favour of elites and that crime control and punishment perform ideological functions. Differential Opportunity Theory is the idea that people (usually teens) from low socioeconomic backgrounds who have few opportunities for success, will use any means at their disposal to achieve success. developed by Richard Cloward and Lloyd Oblin in 1960 if juveniles were presented with more opportunities to succeed, they would be less likely to turn to affiliation with subculture groups for validation, Economic Models of Crime 1. ‘The Rational Model of Crime argue that crime is a result ofindividuals’ making choices between using their scarce resources of timeand effort in legitimate or in illegitimate activities. A key assumption is thatwhen making these choices, individuals are rational and choose the bestoption based on the available information and resources. ‘The Static Model Of Crime = the individual considersa single time period when making a decision on whethe? or not to commita crime, He contends that a cost/benefit analysis can be tséd to inform anindividual's decision to commit a crime, As individuals do not have perfect information, rational individuals will seek to maximize the expected benefits. Individuals doso by comparing the benefit they would derive trom a criminal activity withthe benefit derived from engaging inegal activities. = Anindividual will commit a crime only if his or her expected benefit from theatfense is positive. = developed by Gary Becker Dynamic Models Of Crime = integrate past experience with forward-looking behavior. Examineshow decisions made in the present affect future consequences related toemployment and expected benefits = Individualsthus seem to change their behavior when they anticipate the possible futureconsequences of their actions. Present-oriented or Myopic Model of Crime ~ Humanjbeings are generally impatient. = _-Most peaple would prefer to experience immediate rewards and postpone the associated casts. Radical Political Economic Model of Crime = focus on key political andsocioeconomic factors that sustain crime. The key factors in this model arethe following: a. Relative Deprivation-focuses on the relative differences in income among the different classes in society. According to this view, individuals identify themselves with the group they belong to in society. The degree of deprivation is defined as the distance between the particulargroup's experiences compared with that of the larger society. Individuals determine their chances of employment and incomebased on their level of education and a relatively open labor market. b. Unemployment- lowers the opportunity costs of crime or that it increasesthe need to supplement income from sources other than legal employment. ¢. Class- The use of laws is assumedto systematically discriminate against the poorer classes. It is revealed in theattention that crimes, such as burglary or theft, receive in comparison withwhite collar crime, although the latter type of crimes represent a largerproportion of monetary losses than the former type.