Group

1
 Flower Induction

- Flower induction is the physiological process in the plant by which the

shoot apical meristem becomes competent to develop flowers.
- Biochemical changes at the apex, particularly those caused by
cytokinins, accompany this process.
- Flower induction is the process by which vegetative buds transition
into floral buds. It is a critical physiological change that determines the
success and quality of flowering.
 Definations and key
terms
1.Induction the process or action of bringing about or giving rise to
something
2.Photoperiodism is the reaction of plants to the length of day and night.
3.Long-day plants are plants that require a longer day phase than they
do a night phase.
4.Short day plants A plant that requires a long period of darkness
5. Day-neutral plant plant that flowers regardless of the length of the
period of light it is exposed to.
Photoperiodism
‘Photo’ means ‘light’ and ‘period’ means
‘length of time’. Plants need exposure to
light for a ‘critical duration’. This duration is
different for different plants. Based on this
critical duration, plants can fall into the
following three categories:
 Long Day
Plants (LDP)
● These plants flower when the days are longer.
● They require more than the critical duration of light to flower (usually
14-16 hours)
. ● The light period is very critical in LDP plants. Prolongation of the light
period or a brief exposure to light during the dark period boosts flowering
in these plants
.● One usually does not find LDP plants in places where the length of a
day is too short.
● They are also called ‘Short Night Plants’
● spinach, radish, hibiscus etc.
 Short Day
Plants (SDP)
● These plants flower when the days are shorter.
● They need less than the critical duration of light (about 8-10 hours) and a
continuous dark period (about 14-16 hours) to flower.
● The dark period is very critical for SDP plants and has to be continuous.
These plants will not flower if the dark period is briefly interrupted by light.
● SDP plants are usually not found in places where the length of a day is too
long.
● They are also called ‘Long Night Plants’.
● Examples – soybean, tobacco, chrysanthemum etc.
 Day Neutral
Plants (DNP)
● These plants do not follow this restriction of critical duration.
● In other words, they are ‘neutral’ to the length of day or night.
● Examples – tomatoes, pea plants, roses etc.
 Vernalization
● Vernalization is derived from a Latin word “vernus” which
means “of spring”. It means to make “spring-like”.
● It is the induction of the flowering process of the plant by
exposure to the long periods of cold winter or such conditions.
● Once this process takes place, plants develop the capability
of flowering. However, they may necessitate extra seasonal
weeks of growing before they flower.
Vernalization can be of the
following types:
● Obligate vernalization Plants must be exposed to lower
temperatures for a specified period of time.

Example – Biennial plants (cabbage)

● Facultative vernalization Upon being exposed to lower

temperatures, flowering in plants appears earlier.

Example – winter annual triticale.

 Age
The age of the last flush of vegetative stems,
thus, appears to be the primary factor regulating
floral induction in warm climates. Bueno and
Valmayor (1974) indicated that leaves must
become brittle as evidenced by an audible
crackling sound when hand-crushed to indicate
leaf age
 Temperature
Lower nighttime temperatures help the plant:
recover from moisture loss, intensify flower
color and prolong flower life. Excessively low
or high temperatures may cause: plant stress,
inhibit growth, or promote a spindly
appearance and foliage damage or drop.
 Hormones
Plant hormones, such as auxins, cytokinins,
gibberellins, abscisic acid, and ethylene, play
essential roles in regulating flowering. They
interact with each other and with
environmental signals to modulate the
transition from vegetative to reproductive
growth
 Nutrient
Availability
Adequate nutrient availability is essential for flower
induction and subsequent reproductive success.
Nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and
micronutrients play critical roles in the biochemical
processes underlying flowering. Imbalances or
deficiencies in nutrient levels can negatively impact
flower induction and flowering
 Environment
stress
When plants experience adverse conditions such as drought,
high temperatures, or low nutrients, they may be unable to
grow and reproduce normally. In response to these
conditions, plants may shift their resources towards
reproduction, in order to ensure that they produce offspring
before they die. This shift in resources can lead to the
induction of flowering
 Regulation of
flower induction
● The main pathways controlling flowering in response to
environmental signals are the photoperiod (day length), ambient
temperature (surrounding temperature) and vernalization (prolonged
cold exposure) pathways.
● Other endogenous factors such as phytohormones and carbohydrate
status also regulate flowering through the autonomous, gibberellic acid
(GA), nutrient‐responsive and aging pathways.
 Regulation of
flower induction

All these different regulatory pathways converge on a set of floral

pathway integrator genes, namely FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) and
its paralogue* TWIN SISTER OF FT (TSF), as well as SUPPRESSOR
OF CONSTANS 1 (SOC1) and AGAMOUS‐LIKE 24 (AGL24)
 Regulation of
flower induction
● These act to control the expression of a small set of meristem
identity genes at the shoot apical and lateral meristems including
LEAFY (LFY), APETALA 1 (AP1) and FRUITFUL (FUL).
● Once the expression of these genes reaches a certain level they
induce the expression of floral organ identity genes and flowers are
produced
{* a pair of genes that derives from the same ancestral gene and now
reside at different locations within the same genome.
 comparison of crops and their
flower induction
Typically, rice is a short-day plant, meaning it requires shorter
Rice daylight periods to induce flowering. However, there are also
day-neutral varieties. Flower induction in rice is primarily
controlled by the photoperiod, although other factors like
temperature and hormonal cues also play a role.

Maize (Corn)
Maize is a long-day plant, meaning it requires longer daylight
periods to induce flowering. It's less sensitive to photoperiod
compared to some other crops. Instead, temperature and
genetic factors are more critical in determining flowering time
in maize.
 comparison of crops and their
flower induction
Soybean is classified as a short-day plant, meaning it typically
Soybean flowers when days are shorter. However, there are also day-
neutral varieties available. Flowering in soybean is primarily
regulated by day length, but temperature and other
environmental factors also influence the process.

Tomato
Tomato plants are typically day-neutral, meaning they are not
strongly influenced by day length when it comes to flowering
induction. Instead, factors such as temperature, light
intensity, and hormonal balance play more significant roles in
flower initiation in tomatoes.
 comparison of crops and their
flower induction
Wheat Wheat is a long-day plant, requiring longer daylight periods
for flower induction. However, there are also day-neutral
varieties. Temperature and vernalization (exposure to cold
temperatures) are critical factors influencing flowering time in
wheat

Cotton
Cotton is a day-neutral plant, meaning its flowering is not
significantly affected by day length. Flowering in cotton is
primarily influenced by temperature, water availability, and
hormonal balance
Thank
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