ABSTRACT:

Smart agriculture is a farming system which uses IoT technology. This emerging system
increases the quantity and quality of agricultural products. IoT devices provide information about
nature of farming fields and then take action depending on the farmer input. In this paper, an IoT
based advanced solution for monitoring the soil conditions and atmosphere for efficient crop
growth is presented. The developed system is capable of monitoring temperature, humidity, soil
moisture level using NodeMCU and several sensors connected to it. Also, a notification in the
form of SMS will be sent to farmer’s phone using Wi-Fi about environmental condition of the
field.
INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is the primary occupation in India and is the backbone of Indian economic system.
Agriculture provides employment opportunities to rural people on a large scale in
underdeveloped and developing countries in addition to providing food. It is the process of
producing food, fiber and many other desired products by the cultivation and raising of domestic
animals. Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for about more than 58% of India’s
population. Climate changes will have significant impact on agriculture by increasing water
demand and limiting crop productivity in areas where irrigation is most needed. Irrigation
system, rain fed agriculture, groundwater irrigation are some of the methods introduced to
produce healthier crops which may not use water efficiently. In order to use water efficiently a
smart system is designed. In the system farmer need not make the water flow into fields
manually, but the system automatically does that efficiently. The traditional methods practiced
by people may result inhuge wastage of water. Hence, the concept of robotized farming with mix
of IoT has been developed [1]. The technological advancements began to increase the efficiency
of production remarkably thus, making it a reliable system. The knowledge of properties of soil
determines the water supply to be driven in a smart way. The practice of agriculture in a smart
way helps to acquire knowledge of soil and temperature conditions. Developing the smart
agriculture using IoT based systems not only increases the production but also avoids wastage of
water [2]. The soil moisture sensor, humidity and temperature sensor continuously monitors the
soil and environmental conditions, sends the live data to smartphone via cloud service. While
raining, the moisture content may increase several times. A rain-drop detecting sensor intimates
the controller if there is rainfall, making the water supply to reduce or stop depending upon the
moisture content at the moment. The crop requirements such as amount of humidity, temperature
and moisture content are to be studied and can be installed again in the controller to meet its
circumstances. In this paper, the system uses few sensors which gives the amount of moisture in
the soil, the humidity and temperature of the region, and a rain detecting sensor which and can be
used in deciding whether the crop is suitable for growing. All these sensors along with
NodeMCU are connected to the internet and a smartphone
EXISTING SYSTEM

An existing system doesn’t have the controlling over IOT. The smart irrigation system having
all contol over sensors. Many new concepts are being developed to allow agricultural automation
to flourish and deliver its full potential.

PROPOSED SYSTEM

The main advantage of the proposed irrigation system is that it can send the information of a soil
to the user through IoT network for irrigation. Power supply is given to the circuit in the form of
voltage or current. Here soil moisture sensor measures the water content of soil and its output is
fed to the amplifier, which is used to improve the gain value. And this measured value is given to
the Arduino nano as analog input
LITERATURE REVIEW

IN “PRADYUMNA GOKHALE, OMKAR BHAT, SAGAR BHAT,"INTRODUCTION TO

IOT", INTERNATIONAL ADVANCED RESEARCH JOURNAL IN SCIENCE,
ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (IARJ SET), VOL. 5, ISSUE 1, JANUARY 2018.”
The phrase Internet of Things (IoT) refers to connecting various physical devices and objects
throughout the world via internet. The term IoT was firstly proposed by Kevin Ashton in
1999.The following section illustrates basics of IoT. It deals with various layers used in IoT and
some basic terms related to it. It is basically expansion of services provided by Internet. This
section also presents the architecture of IoT. For example, when the household devices of our
daily life connect with the internet the system can be called a Smart-Home in IoT environment.
The IoT is not just deep vision for future. It is already under implementation and is having an
impact on more than just technological development. The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network
of physical objects—devices, instruments, vehicles, buildings and other items embedded with
electronics, circuits ,software, sensors and network connectivity that enables these objects to
collect and exchange data. The Internet of Things allows objects to be sensed and controlled
remotely across existing network infrastructure, creating opportunities for more direct integration
of the physical world into computer-based systems, and resulting in improved efficiency and
accuracy. The concept of a network of smart devices was discussed as early as 1982, with a
modified Coke machine at Carnegie Mellon University becoming the first internet-connected
appliance [3], able to report its inventory and whether newly loaded drinks were cold. Kevin
Ashton (born 1968) is a British technology pioneer who is known for inventing the term "the
Internet of Things" to describe a system where the Internet is connected to the physical world via
ubiquitous sensors. IoT is able to interact without human intervention. Some preliminary IoT
applications have been already developed in healthcare, transportation, and automotive
industries. IoT technologies are at their infant stages; however, many new developments have
occurred in the integration of objects with sensors in the Internet. The development of IoT
involves many issues such as infrastructure, communications, interfaces, protocols, and
standards. The objective of this paper is to give general concept of IoT, the architecture and
layers in IoT, some basic terms associated with it and the services provided Kevin Ashton firstly
proposed the concept of IoT in 1999, and he referred the IoT as uniquely identifiable connected
objects with radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology. However, the exact definition of
IoT is still in the forming process that is subject to the perspectives taken. IoT was generally
defined as “dynamic global network infrastructure with self-configuring capabilities based on
standards and communication protocols”. Looking at the evolution of the Internet we can classify
it into five eras: 1. The Internet of Documents -- e-libraries, document based webpages. 2. The
Internet of Commerce -- e-commerce, e-banking and stock trading websites. 3. The Internet of
Applications -- Web 2.0 4. The Internet of People -- Social networks. 5. The Internet of Things --
Connected devices and machines. Physical and virtual things in an IoT have their own identities
and attributes and are capable of using intelligent interfaces and being integrated as an
information network. In easy terms IoT can be treated as a set of connected devices that are
uniquely identifiable. The words “Internet” and “Things” mean an inter-connected world-wide
network based on sensors, communication, networking, and information processing
technologies, which might be the new version of information and communications technology
(ICT). To date, a number of technologies are involved in IoT, such as wireless sensor networks
(WSNs), barcodes, intelligent sensing, RFID, NFCs, low energy wireless communications, cloud
computing and so on. The IoT describes the next generation of Internet, where the physical
things could be accessed and identified through the Internet. Depending on various technologies
for the implementation, the definition of the IoT varies. However, the fundamental of IoT
implies that objects in an IoT can be identified uniquely in the virtual representations. Within an
IoT, all things are able to exchange data and if needed, process data according to predefined
schemes.
IN” A.ANUSHA, A.GUPTHA, G.SIVANAGESWAR RAO, RAVI KUMAR TENALI, “A
MODEL FOR SMART AGRICULTURE USING IOT”, INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL
OF INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGY AND EXPLORING ENGINEERING (IJITEE),
ISSN: 2278-3075, VOLUME-8 ISSUE-6, APRIL 2019.” Climate changes and rainfall has been
erratic over the past decade. Due to this in recent era, climate-smart methods called as smart
agriculture is adopted by many Indian farmers. Smart agriculture is an automated and directed
information technology implemented with the IOT (Internet of Things). IOT is developing
rapidly and widely applied in all wireless environments. In this paper, sensor technology and
wireless networks integration of IOT technology has been studied and reviewed based on the
actual situation of agricultural system. A combined approach with internet and wireless
communications, Remote Monitoring System (RMS) is proposed. Major objective is to collect
real time data of agriculture production environment that provides easy access for agricultural
facilities such as alerts through Short Massaging Service (SMS) and advices on weather pattern,
crops etc. Agriculture is the basic source of livelihood of people in India. In past decade, it is
observed that there is not much crop development in agriculture sector. Food prices are
continuously increasing because crop rate is declined. It has pushed over 40 million people into
poverty since 2010[1]. There are number of factors which are responsible for this, it may be due
to water waste, low soil fertility, fertilizer abuse, climate change or diseases, etc. It is very
essential to make effective intervention in agriculture and the solution is IOT in integration with
Wireless sensor networks. It has potential to change the way of development in agriculture and
gives great contribution to make it smart agriculture. The internet of things involves a three-tier
system. It includes perception layer, network layer and application layer. Perception layer
includes sensor motes. Information communication technology (ICT) enabled devices, sensor
motes are building blocks of sensor technology. It includes cameras, RFID tags, sensors and
sensor network used to recognize objects and collecting real time information. The network layer
is a infrastructure of the IOT to realize universal service. It directs towards the combination of
the perception layer and application layer. The application layer is a layer that combines the IOT
with the technology of specific industry. The internet of things almost applied in all areas of
industry, including smart agriculture, smart parking, smart building environmental monitoring,
healthcare transportation and many more. Among them, agriculture is one of the important areas
which targets millions of people The research in agriculture area is enhanced in various aspects
to improve the quality and quantity of productivity of agriculture. Researchers have been worked
on many different projects on soil attributes, different weather conditions as well as scouting
crops. Some projects worked on actual farm fields and some worked on polyhouses. Researches
of Carrnige Mellon University worked on plant nursery using Wireless Sensor Technology [2].
Wireless Sensor Network based polyhouse monitoring system is explained in [3] which make
use of environment temperature, humidity, CO2 level and sufficient light detection modules.
This polyhouse control technology provides automatic adjustment of polyhouse. . In [4] authors
have proposed development of wsn based above mentioned parameters for agriculture using
ZigBee protocol and GPS technology. In some projects such as [5] authors have designed and
implemented an approach in development of crops monitoring system in real time to increase
production of rice plants. This system has used motes with sensors to check leaf wetness. Later
on use of IoT has been proposed in [6-8]. IoT gives platform to researches to maintain real time
data and send alerts immediately to farmers. IoT implementation gives easy access to
information that comes from sensor nodes. IoT is also used for product supply chain business
process. Cloud architecture gives additional support to IoT in maintaining Big data of agriculture
information viz. history information, soil properties, fertilizers distribution, image cultivation
through camera and information collected through sensors, recording information etc. Authors
have analyzed collected data for finding correlation between environment, work and yield for
standard work model construction. Monitoring for adverse signs and fault detection. In [9]
authors have discussed the application of data mining with the help of WEKA tool and analysis
model using of machine learning algorithms. In [10] authors have concentrated on crop
monitoring. Information of temperature and rainfall is collected as initial spatial data and
analyzed to reduce the crop losses and to improve the crop production. They have used
optimization method to show progressive refinement for spatial association analysis. Although
authors mentioned above have proposed many models in agriculture domain, the effective model
is needed that uses new technologies and provides an integrated approach to monitor
environmental conditions periodically and various soil properties of farm field through IoT
devices and store these details at the central place in the cloud storage which results in Big –data
over the time. It is also usable by multiple vendors or farmers who enquire about crop yield
maximization. Farmer can analyze these data for fertilizer requirements for current crop. It will
help for smart climate solutions and disaster prevention.
IN “MUTHUNOORI NARESH, P MUNASWAMY,” SMART AGRICULTURE SYSTEM
USING IOT TECHNOLOGY”, INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RECENT
TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING (IJRTE), ISSN: 2277-3878, VOLUME-7 ISSUE-5,
JANUARY 2019.” Agriculture plays a vital role in the growth of a country, it has been found in
recent studies that we need to double our food production. As the growth in the agriculture sector
has been stagnant over the past few years thus it is required to implement new technologies in
this sector to improve food production. This system proposes a smart farming method in a
limited area by using sensor nodes like temperature & humidity sensor and soil moisture sensor.
This system is developed in such a way to keep the cost minimized and provide a simple
platform to monitor the parameters for growth of cops through the internet over IoT. Agriculture
is the backbone of a countries economic activities, as India’s major source of income is from the
agriculture sector and more than 60 percent of farmers solely depend on agriculture. Agriculture
is an important aspect in the development of any country as in Indian economic survey 2017-18
had key implementations for the agriculture sector that it employs more than 50 percent of the
total workforce in India and contributed around 17-18 percent of India’s GDP [1]. As about half
of the workforce is engaged in agriculture and its related sectors, farmers have started to apply
new methods, agricultural techniques like fertilizers, pesticides, enhanced seeds, and various
irrigation methods such as drip irrigation and ditch irrigation, but in some places, it is decreasing
due to exploitation and overuse of resources. In order to achieve more production, the need is to
change this manual method to automation to reduce human intervention so that the workforce
could be utilized in other sectors and ease of use [12]. This system could be used as a consequent
soil monitoring tool with a potential benefit of increased yields, low operating cost and less
consumed resources this innovative strategy is known as “Precision Farming”. This system
utilizes trending and advanced technology to increase the crop production, in the proposed
system different parameters like temperature, humidity, andsoil moisture are constantly
monitored using WiFi module connected with all the required sensors which are programmed to
send data to an IoT platform where these data can be read, analyzed and stored [2]. The prime
objective is to provide a useful and errorfree system to the user, the user can either be an
individual or any commercial organization. This system is designed in such a way that it is easily
accessible with a smartphone.
IN “NIKESH GONDCHAWAR, PROF. DR. R. S. KAWITKAR, ”IOT BASED SMART
AGRICULTURE”, INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCED RESEARCH IN
COMPUTER AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING, VOL. 5, ISSUE 6, JUNE
2016.” Agriculture plays vital role in the development of agricultural country. In India about
70% of population depends upon farming and one third of the nation’s capital comes from
farming. Issues concerning agriculture have been always hindering the development of the
country. The only solution to this problem is smart agriculture by modernizing the current
traditional methods of agriculture. Hence the project aims at making agriculture smart using
automation and IoT technologies. The highlighting features of this project includes smart GPS
based remote controlled robot to perform tasks like weeding, spraying, moisture sensing, bird
and animal scaring, keeping vigilance, etc. Secondly it includes smart irrigation with smart
control and intelligent decision making based on accurate real time field data. Thirdly, smart
warehouse management which includes temperature maintenance, humidity maintenance and
theft detection in the warehouse. Controlling of all these operations will be through any remote
smart device or computer connected to Internet and the operations will be performed by
interfacing sensors, Wi-Fi or ZigBee modules, camera and actuators with micro-controller and
raspberry pi Agriculture is considered as the basis of life for the human species as it is the main
source of food grains and other raw materials. It plays vital role in the growth of country’s
economy. It also provides large ample employment opportunities to the people. Growth in
agricultural sector is necessary for the development of economic condition of the country.
Unfortunately, many farmers still use the traditional methods of farming which results in low
yielding of crops and fruits. But wherever automation had been implemented and human beings
had been replaced by automatic machineries, the yield has been improved. Hence there is need to
implement modern science and technology in the agriculture sector for increasing the yield. Most
of the papers signifies the use of wireless sensor network which collects the data from different
types of sensors and then send it to main server using wireless protocol. The collected data
provides the information about different environmental factors which in turns helps to monitor
the system. Monitoring environmental factors is not enough and complete solution to improve
the yield of the crops. There are number of other factors that affect the productivity to great
extent. These factors include attack of insects and pests which can be controlled by spraying the
crop with proper insecticide and pesticides. Secondly, attack of wild animals and birds when the
crop grows up. There is also possibility of thefts when crop is at the stage of harvesting. Even
after harvesting, farmers also face problems in storage of harvested crop. So, in order to provide
solutions to all such problems, it is necessary to develop integrated system which will take care
of all factors affecting the productivity in every stages like; cultivation, harvesting and post
harvesting storage. This paper therefore proposes a system which is useful in monitoring the
field data as well as controlling the field operations which provides the flexibility. The paper
aims at making agriculture smart using automation and IoT technologies. The highlighting
features of this paper includes smart GPS based remote controlled robot to perform tasks like;
weeding, spraying, moisture sensing, bird and animal scaring, keeping vigilance, etc. Secondly,
it includes smart irrigation with smart control based on real time field data. Thirdly, smart
warehouse management which includes; temperature maintenance, humidity maintenance and
theft detection in the warehouse. Controlling of all these operations will be through any remote
smart device or computer connected to Internet and the operations will be performed by
interfacing sensors, Wi-Fi or ZigBee modules, camera and actuators with micro-controller and
raspberry pi. The newer scenario of decreasing water tables, drying up of rivers and tanks,
unpredictable environment present an urgent need of proper utilization of water. To cope up with
this use of temperature and moisture sensor at suitable locations for monitoring of crops is
implemented in. [1] An algorithm developed with threshold values of temperature and soil
moisture can be programmed into a microcontroller-based gateway to control water quantity.
The system can be powered by photovoltaic panels and can have a duplex communication link
based on a cellularInternet interface that allows data inspection and irrigation scheduling to be
programmed through a web page. [2] The technological development in Wireless Sensor
Networks made it possible to use in monitoring and control of greenhouse parameter in precision
agriculture. [3] After the research in the agricultural field, researchers found that the yield of
agriculture is decreasing day by day. However, use of technology in the field of agriculture plays
important role in increasing the production as well as in reducing the extra man power efforts.
Some of the research attempts are done for betterment of farmers which provides the systems
that use technologies helpful for increasing the agricultural yield. A remote sensing and control
irrigation system using distributed wireless sensor network aiming for variable rate irrigation,
real time in field sensing, controlling of a site specific precision linear move irrigation system to
maximize the productivity with minimal use of water was developed by Y. Kim . The system
described details about the design and instrumentation of variable rate irrigation, wireless sensor
network and real time in field sensing and control by using appropriate software. The whole
system was developed using five in field sensor stations which collects the data and send it to the
base station using global positioning system (GPS) where necessary action was taken for
controlling irrigation according to the database available with the system. The system provides a
promising low cost wireless solution as well as remote controlling for precision irrigation. [4] In
the studies related to wireless sensor network, researchers measured soil related parameters such
as temperature and humidity. Sensors were placed below the soil which communicates with relay
nodes by the use of effective communication protocol providing very low duty cycle and hence
increasing the life time of soil monitoring system. The system was developed using
microcontroller, universal asynchronous receiver transmitter (UART) interface and sensors while
the transmission was done by hourly sampling and buffering the data, transmit it and then
checking the status messages. The drawbacks of the system were its cost and deployment of
sensor under the soil which causes attenuation of radio frequency (RF) signals. [5]
IN “ANAND NAYYAR, ER. VIKRAM PURI,” SMART FARMING: IOT BASED
SMART SENSORS AGRICULTURE STICK FOR LIVE TEMPERATURE AND
MOISTURE MONITORING USING ARDUINO, CLOUD COMPUTING & SOLAR
TECHNOLOGY”, NOVEMBER 2016.” Internet of Things (IoT) technology has brought
revolution to each and every field of common man’s life by making everything smart and
intelligent. IoT refers to a network of things which make a self-configuring network. The
development of Intelligent Smart Farming IoT based devices is day by day turning the face of
agriculture production by not only enhancing it but also making it cost-effective and reducing
wastage. The aim / objective of this paper is to propose a Novel Smart IoT based Agriculture
Stick assisting farmers in getting Live Data (Temperature, Soil Moisture) for efficient
environment monitoring which will enable them to do smart farming and increase their overall
yield and quality of products. The Agriculture stick being proposed via this paper is integrated
with Arduino Technology, Breadboard mixed with various sensors and live data feed can be
obtained online from Thingsspeak.com. The product being proposed is tested on Live
Agriculture Fields giving high accuracy over 98% in data feeds. The next era of Smart
Computing will be totally based on Internet of Things (IoT). Internet of Things (IoT), these days
is playing a crucial role of transforming “Traditional Technology” from homes to offices to
“Next Generation Everywhere Computing”. “Internet of Things” (Weber,R.H, 2010) is gaining
an important place in research across the nook and corner of this world especially in area of
modern wireless communications. The term, Internet of Things (Suo et al, 2012) refers to
uniquely identifiable objects, things and their respective virtual representations in Internet like
structure which was proposed in year 1998. Internet of Things was discovered by “Kevin
Ashton” (Weber, R.H, 2010) in 1999 with regard to supply chain management. These days, the
strength and adaptability of IoT has been changed and nowadays it is being used even by normal
user. From the point of normal user, IoT (Ashton, 2009) has laid the foundation of development
of various products like smart living, e-health services, automation and even smart education.
And from commercial point of view, IoT these days is being used in business management,
manufacturing, intelligent transportation and even agriculture. One of main areas where IoT
based research is going on and new products are launching on everyday basis to make the
activities smarter and efficient towards better production is “Agriculture”. Agriculture sector is
regarded as the more crucial sector globally for ensuring food security. Talking of India farmers,
which are right now in huge trouble and are at disadvantageous position in terms of farm size,
technology, trade, government policies, climate conditions etc. No doubt, ICT based techniques
have solved some problems but are not well enough for efficient and assured production.
Recently, ICT has migrated to IoT which is also known as “Ubiquitous computing” (Patil et al,
2012). Agricultural production requires lots of activities like soil and plant monitoring,
environmental monitoring like moisture and temperature, transportation, supply chain
management, infrastructure management, control systems management, animal monitoring, pest
control etc IoT based agricultural convergence technology (Lee et al, 2013) creates high value in
terms of quality and increased production and also reduces burden on farmers in ample manner.
In addition to Agricultural IoT, the future of agriculture is “Precision Agriculture” which is
expected to grow at $3.7 billion by 2018. With data generated from GPS and Smart Sensors on
agricultural field and integration of smart farming equipment along with Big Data analytics,
farmers would be able to improve crop yields and make effective use of water and in turn
wastage of any sort would be reduced to a remarkable level. So, seeing the current scenario of
agriculture which is surrounded by tons of issues, it is utmost requirement to have IoT based
Smart Farming. In order to implement smart farming in real world, IoT based products are
required to be developed and implemented at regular intervals and also at a very fast pace.
BLOCK DIAGRAM

CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Many embedded systems have substantially different design constraints than desktop
computing applications. No single characterization applies to the diverse spectrum of embedded
systems. However, some combination of cost pressure, long life-cycle, real-time requirements,
reliability requirements, and design culture dysfunction can make it difficult to be successful
applying traditional computer design methodologies and tools to embedded applications.
Embedded systems in many cases must be optimized for life-cycle and business-driven factors
rather than for maximum computing throughput. There is currently little tool support for
expanding embedded computer design to the scope of holistic embedded system design.
However, knowing the strengths and weaknesses of current approaches can set expectations
appropriately, identify risk areas to tool adopters, and suggest ways in which tool builders can
meet industrial needs. If we look around us, today we see numerous appliances which we use
daily, be it our refrigerator, the microwave oven, cars, PDAs etc. Most appliances today are
powered by something beneath the sheath that makes them do what they do. These are tiny
microprocessors, which respond to various keystrokes or inputs. These tiny microprocessors,
working on basic assembly languages, are the heart of the appliances. We call them embedded
systems. Of all the semiconductor industries, the embedded systems market place is the most
conservative, and engineering decisions here usually lean towards established, low risk solutions.
Welcome to the world of embedded systems, of computers that will not look like computers and
won’t function like anything we are familiar with.

2.1 CLASSIFICATION

Embedded systems are divided into autonomous, realtime, networked & mobile
categories.

Autonomous systems

They function in standalone mode. Many embedded systems used for process control in

manufacturing units& automobiles fall under this category.

Real-time embedded systems

 These are required to carry out specific tasks in a specified amount of time. These systems

are extensively used to carry out time critical tasks in process control.

Networked embedded systems

They monitor plant parameters such as temperature, pressure and humidity and send the

data over the network to a centralized system for on line monitoring.

Mobile gadgets

Mobile gadgets need to store databases locally in their memory. These gadgets imbibe

powerful computing & communication capabilities to perform realtime as well as nonrealtime

tasks and handle multimedia applications. The embedded system is a combination of computer

hardware, software, firmware and perhaps additional mechanical parts, designed to perform a

specific function. A good example is an automatic washing machine or a microwave oven. Such

a system is in direct contrast to a personal computer, which is not designed to do only a specific
task. But an embedded system is designed to do a specific task with in a given timeframe,

repeatedly, endlessly, with or without human interaction.

Hardware

Good software design in embedded systems stems from a good understanding of the

hardware behind it. All embedded systems need a microprocessor, and the kinds of

microprocessors used in them are quite varied. A list of some of the common microprocessors

families are: ARM family, The Zilog Z8 family, Intel 8051/X86 family, Motorola 68K family

and the power PC family. For processing of information and execution of programs, embedded

system incorporates microprocessor or micro- controller. In an embedded system the

microprocessor is a part of final product and is not available for reprogramming to the end user.

An embedded system also needs memory for two purposes, to store its program and to store its

data. Unlike normal desktops in which data and programs are stored at the same place, embedded

systems store data and programs in different memories. This is simply because the embedded
system does not have a hard drive and the program must be stored in memory even when the

power is turned off. This type of memory is called ROM. Embedded applications commonly

employ a special type of ROM that can be programmed or reprogrammed with the help of

special devices.

2.2 OTHER COMMON PARTS FOUND ON MANY EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

 UART& RS232
 PLD
 ASIC’s& FPGA’s
 Watch dog timer etc.

2.3 DESIGN PROCESS

Embedded system design is a quantitative job. The pillars of the system design
methodology are the separation between function and architecture, is an essential step from
conception to implementation. In recent past, the search and industrial community has paid
significant attention to the topic of hardware-software (HW/SW) codesign and has tackled the
problem of coordinating the design of the parts to be implemented as software and the parts to be
implemented as hardware avoiding the HW/SW integration problem marred the electronics
system industry so long. In any large scale embedded systems design methodology, concurrency
must be considered as a first class citizen at all levels of abstraction and in both hardware and
software. Formal models & transformations in system design are used so that verification and
synthesis can be applied to advantage in the design methodology. Simulation tools are used for
exploring the design space for validating the functional and timing behaviors of embedded
systems. Hardware can be simulated at different levels such as electrical circuits, logic gates,
RTL e.t.c. using VHDL description. In some environments software development tools can be
coupled with hardware simulators, while in others the software is executed on the simulated
hardware. The later approach is feasible only for small parts of embedded systems. Design of an
embedded system using Intel’s 80C188EB chip is shown in the figure. Inorder to reduce
complexity, the design process is divided in four major steps: specification, system synthesis,
implementation synthesis and performance evaluation of the prototype.

2.3.1 SPECIFICATION
During this part of the design process, the informal requirements of the analysis are
transformed to formal specification using SDL.

2.3.2 SYSTEM-SYNTHESIS
For performing an automatic HW/SW partitioning, the system synthesis step translates
the SDL specification to an internal system model switch contains problem graph& architecture
graph. After system synthesis, the resulting system model is translated back to SDL.

2.3.3 IMPLEMENTATION-SYNTHESIS
SDL specification is then translated into conventional implementation languages such as
VHDL for hardware modules and C for software parts of the system.

2.3.4 PROTOTYPING
On a prototyping platform, the implementation of the system under development is
executed with the software parts running on multiprocessor unit and the hardware part running
on a FPGA board known as phoenix, prototype hardware for Embedded Network Interconnect
Accelerators.

2.3.5 APPLICATIONS
Embedded systems are finding their way into robotic toys and electronic pets, intelligent
cars and remote controllable home appliances. All the major toy makers across the world have
been coming out with advanced interactive toys that can become our friends for life. ‘Furby’ and
‘AIBO’ are good examples at this kind. Furbies have a distinct life cycle just like human beings,
starting from being a baby and growing to an adult one. In AIBO first two letters stands for
Artificial Intelligence. Next two letters represents robot. The AIBO is robotic dog. Embedded
systems in cars also known as Telematic Systems are used to provide navigational security
communication & entertinment services using GPS, satellite. Home appliances are going the
embedded way. LG electronics digital DIOS refrigerator can be used for surfing the net,
checking e-mail, making video phone calls and watching TV.IBM is developing an air
conditioner that we can control over the net. Embedded systems cover such a broad range of
products that generalization is difficult. Here are some broad categories.

Requirement
analysis

Specification

System
architecture

H/w design S/w design

H/w S/w
implementation implementation

H/w testing S/w testing

System integration

System validation

Operation
Maintenance
Evolution

Fig 2.1: Embedded Development Life Cycle

 Aerospace and defence electronics: Fire control, radar, robotics/sensors, sonar.

  Automotive: Autobody electronics, auto power train, auto safety, car information
systems.
 Broadcast & entertainment: Analog and digital sound products, camaras, DVDs, Set
top boxes, virtual reality systems, graphic products.
 Consumer/internet appliances: Business handheld computers, business network
computers/terminals, electronic books, internet smart handheld devices, PDAs.
 Data communications: Analog modems, ATM switches, cable modems, XDSL
modems, Ethernet switches, concentrators.
 Digital imaging: Copiers, digital still cameras, Fax machines, printers, scanners.
 Industrial measurement and control: Hydro electric utility research & management
traffic management systems, train marine vessel management systems.
 Medical electronics: Diagnostic devices, real time medical imaging systems, surgical
devices, critical care systems.
 Server I/O: Embedded servers, enterprise PC servers, PCI LAN/NIC controllers, RAID
devices, SCSI devices.
 Telecommunications: ATM communication products, base stations, networking
switches, SONET/SDH cross connect, multiplexer.
 Mobile data infrastructures: Mobile data terminals, pagers, VSATs, Wireless LANs,
Wireless phones.

CHAPTER 3
NODE-MCU

NODE MCU:

NodeMCU is a low-cost open source IoT platform. It initially included firmware which runs on
the ESP8266 Wi-Fi SoC from Espressif Systems, and hardware which was based on the ESP-12
module.[6][7] Later, support for the ESP32 32-bit MCU was added

OVERVIEW:

NodeMCU is an open source firmware for which open source prototyping board designs are
available. The name "NodeMCU" combines "node" and "MCU" (micro-controller unit).[8]. The
term "NodeMCU" strictly speaking refers to the firmware rather than the associated development
kits.[citation needed]

Both the firmware and prototyping board designs are open source.

The firmware uses the Lua scripting language. The firmware is based on the eLua project, and
built on the Espressif Non-OS SDK for ESP8266. It uses many open source projects, such as lua-
cjson[10] and SPIFFS.[11] Due to resource constraints, users need to select the modules relevant
for their project and build a firmware tailored to their needs. Support for the 32-bit ESP32 has
also been implemented.

The prototyping hardware typically used is a circuit board functioning as a dual in-line package
(DIP) which integrates a USB controller with a smaller surface-mounted board containing the
MCU and antenna. The choice of the DIP format allows for easy prototyping on breadboards.
The design was initially was based on the ESP-12 module of the ESP8266, which is a Wi-Fi SoC
integrated with a Tensilica Xtensa LX106 core, widely used in IoT applications

HISTORY:

NodeMCU was created shortly after the ESP8266 came out. On December 30, 2013, Espressif
Systems[6] began production of the ESP8266.[12] NodeMCU started on 13 Oct 2014, when
Hong committed the first file of nodemcu-firmware to GitHub.[13] Two months later, the project
expanded to include an open-hardware platform when developer Huang R committed the gerber
file of an ESP8266 board, named devkit v0.9.[14] Later that month, Tuan PM ported MQTT
client library from Contiki to the ESP8266 SoC platform,[15] and committed to NodeMCU
project, then NodeMCU was able to support the MQTT IoT protocol, using Lua to access the
MQTT broker. Another important update was made on 30 Jan 2015, when Devsaurus ported the
u8glib[16] to the NodeMCU project,[17] enabling NodeMCU to easily drive LCD, Screen,
OLED, even VGA displays. In the summer of 2015 the original creators abandoned the firmware
project and a group of independent contributors took over. By the summer of 2016 the
NodeMCU included more than 40 different modules.

INTRODUCTION TO NODEMCU:

NodeMCU is an open source LUA based firmware developed for ESP8266 wifi chip. By
exploring functionality with ESP8266 chip, NodeMCU firmware comes with ESP8266
Development board/kit i.e. NodeMCU Development board. Since NodeMCU is open source
platform, their hardware design is open for edit/modify/build. NodeMCU Dev Kit/board consist
of ESP8266 wifi enabled chip. The ESP8266 is a low-cost Wi-Fi chip developed by Espressif
Systems with TCP/IP protocol. For more information about ESP8266, you can refer ESP8266
WiFi Module. There is Version2 (V2) available for NodeMCU Dev Kit i.e. NodeMCU
Development Board v1.0 (Version2), which usually comes in black colored PCB.

NodeMCU Development Kit/Board consist of ESP8266 wifi chip. ESP8266 chip has GPIO pins,
serial communication protocol, etc. features on it.

ESP8266 is a low-cost Wi-Fi chip developed by Espressif Systems with TCP/IP protocol. For
more information about ESP8266, you can refer ESP8266 WiFi Module.

The features of ESP8266 are extracted on NodeMCU Development board. NodeMCU

(LUA based firmware) with Development board/kit that consist of ESP8266 (wifi enabled chip)
chip combines NodeMCU Development board which make it stand-alone device in IoT
applications.

Let’s see 1st version of NodeMCU Dev Kit and its pinout as shown in below images.
NodeMCU Development Board v0.9 (Version1)
NodeMCU Dev Kit v0.9(V1) Pinouts

2nd version of NodeMCU Dev Kit and its Pinout as shown in below images.
Amica NodeMCU Dev Kit v1.0(Version2)
NodeMCU Dev Kit v1.0(V2) Pinouts

NodeMCU Dev Kit v1.0 pin descriptions

GPIO (General Purpose Input Output) Pins:

 NodeMCU has general purpose input output pins on its board as shown in above pinout
diagram. We can make it digital high/low and control things like LED or switch on it.
Also, we can generate PWM signal on these GPIO pins.

For more information about NodeMCU GPIO

For more information about NodeMCU PWM

ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) channel (A0):

NodeMCU has one ADC channel/pin on its board.

For more information about NodeMCU ADC

SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) Pins:

NodeMCU based ESP8266 has Hardware SPI (HSPI) with four pins available for SPI
communication. It also has SPI pins for Quad-SPI communication. With this SPI interface,
we can connect any SPI enabled device with NodeMCU and make communication
possible with it.

For more information about NodeMCU SPI

I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit) Pins:

NodeMCU has I2C functionality support on ESP8266 GPIO pins. Due to internal
functionality on ESP-12E we cannot use all its GPIOs for I2C functionality. So, do tests
before using any GPIO for I2C applications.

For more information about NodeMCU I2C

UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter) Pins:

NodeMCU based ESP8266 has two UART interfaces, UART0 and UART1. Since UART0
(RXD0 & TXD0) is used to upload firmware/codes to board, we can’t use them in applications
while uploading firmware/codes

CHAPTER 4
HARDWARE COMPONENTS
LCD (Liquid Cristal Display)

Introduction:

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat display device made up of any number of
color or monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light source or reflector. Each pixel consists of
a column of liquid crystal molecules suspended between two transparent electrodes, and two
polarizing filters, the axes of polarity of which are perpendicular to each other. Without the
liquid crystals between them, light passing through one would be blocked by the other. The
liquid crystal twists the polarization of light entering one filter to allow it to pass through the
other.

A program must interact with the outside world using input and output devices that
communicate directly with a human being. One of the most common devices attached to an
controller is an LCD display. Some of the most common LCDs connected to the contollers are
16X1, 16x2 and 20x2 displays. This means 16 characters per line by 1 line 16 characters per line
by 2 lines and 20 characters per line by 2 lines, respectively.

Many microcontroller devices use 'smart LCD' displays to output visual information.
LCD displays designed around LCD NT-C1611 module, are inexpensive, easy to use, and it is
even possible to produce a readout using the 5X7 dots plus cursor of the display. They have a
standard ASCII set of characters and mathematical symbols. For an 8-bit data bus, the display
requires a +5V supply plus 10 I/O lines (RS RW D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0). For a 4-bit data
available.
bus it only requires the supply lines plus 6 extra lines(RS RW D7 D6 D5 D4). When the LCDLine lengths of
display is not enabled, data lines are tri-state and they do not interfere with the operation of the 8, 16,

microcontroller. 20, 24,

32 and
Features:
40
(1) Interface with either 4-bit or 8-bit microprocessor. charact
ers are
(2) Display data RAM
all
standar
d, in
one,
two
 (3) 80x8 bits (80 characters).

(4) Character generator ROM

(5). 160 different 5 7 dot-matrix character patterns.

(6). Character generator RAM

(7) 8 different user programmed 5 7 dot-matrix patterns.

(8).Display data RAM and character generator RAM may be

Accessed by the microprocessor.

(9) Numerous instructions

(10) .Clear Display, Cursor Home, Display ON/OFF, Cursor ON/OFF,

Blink Character, Cursor Shift, Display Shift.

(11). Built-in reset circuit is triggered at power ON.

(12). Built-in oscillator.

Data can be placed at any location on the LCD. For 16×1 LCD, the address locations
are:

Fig : Address locations for a 1x16 line LCD

Shapes and sizes:

Even limited to character based modules,there is still a wide variety of shapes and sizes
available. Line lenghs of 8,16,20,24,32 and 40 charecters are all standard, in one, two and four
line versions.

Several different LC technologies exists. “supertwist” types, for example, offer Improved
contrast and viewing angle over the older “twisted nematic” types. Some modules are available
with back lighting, so so that they can be viewed in dimly-lit conditions. The back lighting may
be either “electro-luminescent”, requiring a high voltage inverter circuit, or simple LED
illumination.

Electrical blockdiagram:
Power supply for lcd driving:

PIN DESCRIPTION:

Most LCDs with 1 controller has 14 Pins and LCDs with 2 controller has 16 Pins (two
pins are extra in both for back-light LED connections).
 Fig: pin diagram of 1x16 lines lcd

CONTROL LINES:

EN:

Line is called "Enable." This control line is used to tell the LCD that you are sending it
data. To send data to the LCD, your program should make sure this line is low (0) and then set
the other two control lines and/or put data on the data bus. When the other lines are completely
ready, bring EN high (1) and wait for the minimum amount of time required by the LCD
datasheet (this varies from LCD to LCD), and end by bringing it low (0) again.

RS:

Line is the "Register Select" line. When RS is low (0), the data is to be treated as a
command or special instruction (such as clear screen, position cursor, etc.). When RS is high (1),
the data being sent is text data which sould be displayed on the screen. For example, to display
the letter "T" on the screen you would set RS high.

RW:

Line is the "Read/Write" control line. When RW is low (0), the information on the data
bus is being written to the LCD. When RW is high (1), the program is effectively querying (or
reading) the LCD. Only one instruction ("Get LCD status") is a read command. All others are
write commands, so RW will almost always be low.

Finally, the data bus consists of 4 or 8 lines (depending on the mode of operation selected
by the user). In the case of an 8-bit data bus, the lines are referred to as DB0, DB1, DB2, DB3,
DB4, DB5, DB6, and DB7.

Logic status on control lines:

• E - 0 Access to LCD disabled

- 1 Access to LCD enabled

• R/W - 0 Writing data to LCD

- 1 Reading data from LCD

• RS - 0 Instructions

- 1 Character

Writing data to the LCD:

1) Set R/W bit to low

2) Set RS bit to logic 0 or 1 (instruction or character)

3) Set data to data lines (if it is writing)

4) Set E line to high

5) Set E line to low

Read data from data lines (if it is reading)on LCD:

1) Set R/W bit to high

2) Set RS bit to logic 0 or 1 (instruction or character)

3) Set data to data lines (if it is writing)

4) Set E line to high

5) Set E line to low

Entering Text:

First, a little tip: it is manually a lot easier to enter characters and commands in
hexadecimal rather than binary (although, of course, you will need to translate commands from
binary couple of sub-miniature hexadecimal rotary switches is a simple matter, although a little bit
into hex so that you know which bits you are setting). Replacing the d.i.l. switch pack with a of
re-wiring is necessary.

The switches must be the type where On = 0, so that when they are turned to the zero
position, all four outputs are shorted to the common pin, and in position “F”, all four outputs are
open circuit.

All the available characters that are built into the module are shown in Table 3. Studying
the table, you will see that codes associated with the characters are quoted in binary and
hexadecimal, most significant bits (“left-hand” four bits) across the top, and least significant bits
(“right-hand” four bits) down the left.

Most of the characters conform to the ASCII standard, although the Japanese and Greek
characters (and a few other things) are obvious exceptions. Since these intelligent modules were
designed in the “Land of the Rising Sun,” it seems only fair that their Katakana phonetic symbols
should also be incorporated. The more extensive Kanji character set, which the Japanese share
with the Chinese, consisting of several thousand different characters, is not included!

Using the switches, of whatever type, and referring to Table 3, enter a few characters onto
the display, both letters and numbers. The RS switch (S10) must be “up” (logic 1) when sending
the characters, and switch E (S9) must be pressed for each of them. Thus the operational order is:
set RS high, enter character, trigger E, leave RS high, enter another character, trigger E, and so
on.

The first 16 codes in Table 3, 00000000 to 00001111, ($00 to $0F) refer to the CGRAM.
This is the Character Generator RAM (random access memory), which can be used to hold user-
defined graphics characters. This is where these modules really start to show their potential,
offering such capabilities as bar graphs, flashing symbols, even animated characters. Before the
user-defined characters are set up, these codes will just bring up strange looking symbols.

Codes 00010000 to 00011111 ($10 to $1F) are not used and just display blank characters.
ASCII codes “proper” start at 00100000 ($20) and end with 01111111 ($7F). Codes 10000000 to
10011111 ($80 to $9F) are not used, and 10100000 to 11011111 ($A0 to $DF) are the Japanese
characters.
Initialization by Instructions:
 If the power conditions for the normal operation of the internal reset circuit
are not satisfied, then executing a series of instructions must initialize LCD unit. The
procedure for this initialization process is as above show.

REGULATED POWER SUPPLY:

Introduction:

Power supply is a supply of electrical power. A device or system that

supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads is called a power
supply unit or PSU. The term is most commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less often
to mechanical ones, and rarely to others.

A power supply may include a power distribution system as well as primary or

secondary sources of energy such as

 Conversion of one form of electrical power to another desired form and voltage, typically
involving converting AC line voltage to a well-regulated lower-voltage DC for electronic
devices. Low voltage, low power DC power supply units are commonly integrated with the
devices they supply, such as computers and household electronics.
 Batteries.
 Chemical fuel cells and other forms of energy storage systems.
 Solar power.
 Generators or alternators.
Block Diagram:

Fig .Regulated Power Supply

The basic circuit diagram of a regulated power supply (DC O/P) with led
connected as load is shown in fig:

Fig Circuit diagram of Regulated Power Supply with Led connection

The components mainly used in above figure are

 230V AC MAINS
 TRANSFORMER
  BRIDGE RECTIFIER(DIODES)
 CAPACITOR
 VOLTAGE REGULATOR(IC 7805)
 RESISTOR
 LED(LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)
The detailed explanation of each and every component mentioned above is as follows:

Step 1: Transformation: The process of transforming energy from one device to another is
called transformation. For transforming energy we use transformers.

Transformers:

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to

another through inductively coupled conductors without changing its frequency. A
varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the
transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This
varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the
secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction.

If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the

secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the
transformer to the load. This field is made up from lines of force and has the same shape as a bar
magnet.

If the current is increased, the lines of force move outwards from the coil. If the
current is reduced, the lines of force move inwards.

If another coil is placed adjacent to the first coil then, as the field moves out or in,
the moving lines of force will "cut" the turns of the second coil. As it does this, a voltage is
induced in the second coil. With the 50 Hz AC mains supply, this will happen 50 times a second.
This is called MUTUAL INDUCTION and forms the basis of the transformer.
 The input coil is called the PRIMARY WINDING; the output coil is the
SECONDARY WINDING. Fig: 3.3.4 shows step-down transformer.

Fig 3.3.3: Step-Down Transformer

The voltage induced in the secondary is determined by the TURNS RATIO.

For example, if the secondary has half the primary turns; the secondary will have
half the primary voltage.

Another example is if the primary has 5000 turns and the secondary has 500 turns,
then the turn’s ratio is 10:1.

If the primary voltage is 240 volts then the secondary voltage will be x 10 smaller
= 24 volts. Assuming a perfect transformer, the power provided by the primary must equal the
power taken by a load on the secondary. If a 24-watt lamp is connected across a 24 volt
secondary, then the primary must supply 24 watts.

To aid magnetic coupling between primary and secondary, the coils are wound on
a metal CORE. Since the primary would induce power, called EDDY CURRENTS, into this
core, the core is LAMINATED. This means that it is made up from metal sheets insulated from
each other. Transformers to work at higher frequencies have an iron dust core or no core at all.
 Note that the transformer only works on AC, which has a constantly changing
current and moving field. DC has a steady current and therefore a steady field and there would be
no induction.

Some transformers have an electrostatic screen between primary and secondary.

This is to prevent some types of interference being fed from the equipment down into the mains
supply, or in the other direction. Transformers are sometimes used for IMPEDANCE
MATCHING.

We can use the transformers as step up or step down.

Step Up transformer:

In case of step up transformer, primary windings are every less compared to

secondary winding.

Because of having more turns secondary winding accepts more energy, and it
releases more voltage at the output side.

Step down transformer:

Incase of step down transformer, Primary winding induces more flux than the
secondary winding, and secondary winding is having less number of turns because of that it
accepts less number of flux, and releases less amount of voltage.

Battery power supply:

A battery is a type of linear power supply that offers benefits that traditional
line-operated power supplies lack: mobility, portability and reliability. A battery consists of
multiple electrochemical cells connected to provide the voltage desired. Fig: 3.3.4 shows Hi-
Watt 9V battery
 Fig : Hi-Watt 9V Battery

The most commonly used dry-cell battery is the carbon-zinc dry cell battery. Dry-
cell batteries are made by stacking a carbon plate, a layer of electrolyte paste, and a zinc plate
alternately until the desired total voltage is achieved. The most common dry-cell batteries have
one of the following voltages: 1.5, 3, 6, 9, 22.5, 45, and 90. During the discharge of a carbon-
zinc battery, the zinc metal is converted to a zinc salt in the electrolyte, and magnesium dioxide
is reduced at the carbon electrode. These actions establish a voltage of approximately 1.5 V.

The lead-acid storage battery may be used. This battery is rechargeable; it consists
of lead and lead/dioxide electrodes which are immersed in sulfuric acid. When fully charged, this
type of battery has a 2.06-2.14 V potential (A 12 volt car battery uses 6 cells in series). During
discharge, the lead is converted to lead sulfate and the sulfuric acid is converted to water. When
the battery is charging, the lead sulfate is converted back to lead and lead dioxide A nickel-
cadmium battery has become more popular in recent years. This battery cell is completely sealed
and rechargeable. The electrolyte is not involved in the electrode reaction, making the voltage
constant over the span of the batteries long service life. During the charging process, nickel
oxide is oxidized to its higher oxidation state and cadmium oxide is reduced. The nickel-
cadmium batteries have many benefits. They can be stored both charged and uncharged. They
have a long service life, high current availabilities, constant voltage, and the ability to be
recharged. Fig: 3.3.5 shows pencil battery of 1.5V.
Fig : Pencil Battery of 1.5V

Step 2: Rectification

The process of converting an alternating current to a pulsating direct current is

called as rectification. For rectification purpose we use rectifiers.

Rectifiers:

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct

current (DC), a process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as
components of power supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid-
state diodes, vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components.

A device that it can perform the opposite function (converting DC to AC) is

known as an inverter.

When only one diode is used to rectify AC (by blocking the negative or positive
portion of the waveform), the difference between the term diode and the term rectifier is merely
one of usage, i.e., the term rectifier describes a diode that is being used to convert AC to DC.
Almost all rectifiers comprise a number of diodes in a specific arrangement for more efficiently
converting AC to DC than is possible with only one diode. Before the development of silicon
semiconductor rectifiers, vacuum tube diodes and copper (I) oxide or selenium rectifier stacks
were used.
Bridge full wave rectifier:

The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in figure, which converts an ac voltage to dc

voltage using both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the
figure. The circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to
the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other
two ends of the bridge.

For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct,
whereas diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with
the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL.

For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct
whereas, D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series with the
load resistance RL and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction as in the previous
half cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.

Input Output

Fig : Bridge rectifier: a full-wave rectifier using 4 diodes

DB107:
 Now -a -days Bridge rectifier is available in IC with a number of DB107. In our
project we are using an IC in place of bridge rectifier.

Features:

 Good for automation insertion

 Surge overload rating - 30 amperes peak
 Ideal for printed circuit board
 Reliable low cost construction utilizing molded
 Glass passivated device
 Polarity symbols molded on body
 Mounting position: Any
 Weight: 1.0 gram

Fig : DB107

Step 3: Filtration

The process of converting a pulsating direct current to a pure direct current using
filters is called as filtration.

Filters:

Electronic filters are electronic circuits, which perform signal-processing

functions, specifically to remove unwanted frequency components from the signal, to enhance
wanted ones.

Introduction to Capacitors:
 The Capacitor or sometimes referred to as a Condenser is a passive device, and
one which stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field which produces a potential (static
voltage) across its plates. In its basic form a capacitor consists of two parallel conductive plates
that are not connected but are electrically separated either by air or by an insulating material
called the Dielectric. When a voltage is applied to these plates, a current flows charging up the
plates with electrons giving one plate a positive charge and the other plate an equal and opposite
negative charge. This flow of electrons to the plates is known as the Charging Current and
continues to flow until the voltage across the plates (and hence the capacitor) is equal to the
applied voltage Vcc. At this point the capacitor is said to be fully charged and this is illustrated
below.

Fig:Construction Of a Capacitor Fig :Electrolytic Capaticor

Units of Capacitance:

Microfarad (μF) 1μF = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 F

Nanofarad (nF) 1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001 = 10-9 F

Pico farad (pF) 1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001 = 10-12 F

Operation of Capacitor:
 Think of water flowing through a pipe. If we imagine a capacitor as being a
storage tank with an inlet and an outlet pipe, it is possible to show approximately how an
electronic capacitor works.

First, let's consider the case of a "coupling capacitor" where the capacitor is used
to connect a signal from one part of a circuit to another but without allowing any direct current to
flow.

If the current flow is alternating between zero and a

maximum, our "storage tank" capacitor will allow the
current waves to pass through.

However, if there is a steady current, only the initial short

burst will flow until the "floating ball valve" closes and
stops further flow.

So a coupling capacitor allows "alternating current" to pass through because the ball
valve doesn't get a chance to close as the waves go up and down. However, a steady current
quickly fills the tank so that all flow stops.

A capacitor will pass alternating current but (apart from an initial surge) it will not
pass d.c.
 Where a capacitor is used to decouple a circuit, the effect is
to "smooth out ripples". Any ripples, waves or pulses of
current are passed to ground while d.c. Flows smoothly.

Step 4: Regulation

The process of converting a varying voltage to a constant regulated voltage is

called as regulation. For the process of regulation we use voltage regulators.

Voltage Regulator:

A voltage regulator (also called a ‘regulator’) with only three terminals appears to
be a simple device, but it is in fact a very complex integrated circuit. It converts a varying input
voltage into a constant ‘regulated’ output voltage. Voltage Regulators are available in a variety
of outputs like 5V, 6V, 9V, 12V and 15V. The LM78XX series of voltage regulators are
designed for positive input. For applications requiring negative input, the LM79XX series is
used. Using a pair of ‘voltage-divider’ resistors can increase the output voltage of a regulator
circuit.

It is not possible to obtain a voltage lower than the stated rating. You cannot use a
12V regulator to make a 5V power supply. Voltage regulators are very robust. These can
withstand over-current draw due to short circuits and also over-heating. In both cases, the
regulator will cut off before any damage occurs. The only way to destroy a regulator is to apply
reverse voltage to its input. Reverse polarity destroys the regulator almost instantly. Fig: 3.3.10
shows voltage regulator.
Fig : Voltage Regulator

Resistors:

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its

terminals that is proportional to the electric current passing through it in accordance with Ohm's
law:

V = IR

Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in
most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as
well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).

The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, maximum
working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient,
noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power
dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied
voltage. Critical resistance is determined by the design, materials and dimensions of the resistor.

Resistors can be made to control the flow of current, to work as Voltage dividers,
to dissipate power and it can shape electrical waves when used in combination of other
components. Basic unit is ohms.

Theory of operation:
 Ohm's law:

The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's

law:

V = IR

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the
current (I) through it where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).

Power dissipation:

The power dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor

network) is calculated using the following:
Fig : Resistor Fig : Color Bands In Resistor

LED:

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as

indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical
electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions
are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
The internal structure and parts of a led are shown below.
 Fig : Inside a LED Fig : Parts of a LED

Working:

The structure of the LED light is completely different than that of the light bulb.
Amazingly, the LED has a simple and strong structure. The light-emitting semiconductor
material is what determines the LED's color. The LED is based on the semiconductor diode.

When a diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine
with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is
determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is usually small in area (less than
1 mm2), and integrated optical components are used to shape its radiation pattern and assist in
reflection. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower
energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and
greater durability and reliability. However, they are relatively expensive and require more
precise current and heat management than traditional light sources. Current LED products for
general lighting are more expensive to buy than fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
They also enjoy use in applications as diverse as replacements for traditional light sources in
automotive lighting (particularly indicators) and in traffic signals. The compact size of LEDs has
allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching
rates are useful in advanced communications technology. The electrical symbol and polarities of
led are shown in fig:

Fig : Electrical Symbol & Polarities of LED

LED lights have a variety of advantages over other light sources:

 High-levels of brightness and intensity

 High-efficiency
 Low-voltage and current requirements
 Low radiated heat
 High reliability (resistant to shock and vibration)
 No UV Rays
 Long source life
 Can be easily controlled and programmed

Applications of LED fall into three major categories:

 Visual signal application where the light goes more or less directly from the LED to the
human eye, to convey a message or meaning.
 Illumination where LED light is reflected from object to give visual response of these
objects.
  Generate light for measuring and interacting with processes that do not involve the
human visual system.

DHT TEMPERATURE & HUMIDITY SENSORS.

These sensors are very basic and slow, but are great for hobbyists who want to do some basic
data logging. The DHT sensors are made of two parts, a capacitive humidity sensor and a
thermistor. There is also a very basic chip inside that does some analog to digital conversion and
spits out a digital signal with the temperature and humidity. The digital signal is fairly easy to
read using any microcontroller.

Humidity is the measure of water vapour present in the air. The level of humidity in air affects
various physical, chemical and biological processes. In industrial applications, humidity can
affect the business cost of the products, health and safety of the employees. So, in semiconductor
industries and control system industries measurement of humidity is very important. Humidity
measurement determines the amount of moisture present in the gas that can be a mixture of water
vapour, nitrogen, argon or pure gas etc… Humidity sensors are of two types based on their
measurement units. They are a relative humidity sensor and Absolute humidity sensor. DHT11
is a digital temperature and humidity sensor.
What is a DHT11 Sensor?
DHT11 is a low-cost digital sensor for sensing temperature and humidity. This sensor can be
easily interfaced with any micro-controller such as Arduino, Raspberry Pi etc… to measure
humidity and temperature instantaneously.

DHT11 humidity and temperature sensor is available as a sensor and as a module. The difference
between this sensor and module is the pull-up resistor and a power-on LED. DHT11 is a relative
humidity sensor. To measure the surrounding air this sensor uses a thermistor and a capacitive
humidity sensor.
Working Principle of DHT11 Sensor
DHT11 sensor consists of a capacitive humidity sensing element and a thermistor for sensing
temperature. The humidity sensing capacitor has two electrodes with a moisture holding
substrate as a dielectric between them. Change in the capacitance value occurs with the change in
humidity levels. The IC measure, process this changed resistance values and change them into
digital form.
For measuring temperature this sensor uses a Negative Temperature coefficient thermistor,
which causes a decrease in its resistance value with increase in temperature. To get larger
resistance value even for the smallest change in temperature, this sensor is usually made up of
semiconductor ceramics or polymers.

The temperature range of DHT11 is from 0 to 50 degree Celsius with a 2-degree accuracy.
Humidity range of this sensor is from 20 to 80% with 5% accuracy. The sampling rate of this
sensor is 1Hz .i.e. it gives one reading for every second. DHT11 is small in size with operating
voltage from 3 to 5 volts. The maximum current used while measuring is 2.5mA.

DHT11 Sensor

DHT11 sensor has four pins- VCC, GND, Data Pin and a not connected pin. A pull-up resistor of
5k to 10k ohms is provided for communication between sensor and micro-controller.

Applications

This sensor is used in various applications such as measuring humidity and temperature values in
heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems. Weather stations also use these sensors to
predict weather conditions. The humidity sensor is used as a preventive measure in homes where
people are affected by humidity. Offices, cars, museums, greenhouses and industries use this
sensor for measuring humidity values and as a safety measure.
It’s compact size and sampling rate made this sensor popular among hobbyists. Some of the
sensors which can be used as an alternative to DHT11 sensor are DHT22, AM2302, SHT71.
Which of the specification of the DHT11 sensor was helpful for your application?

DHT11 vs DHT22

We have two versions of the DHT sensor, they look a bit similar and have the same pinout,
but have different characteristics. Here are the specs:
DHT11

 Ultra low cost

 3 to 5V power and I/O
 2.5mA max current use during conversion (while requesting data)
 Good for 20-80% humidity readings with 5% accuracy
 Good for 0-50°C temperature readings ±2°C accuracy
 No more than 1 Hz sampling rate (once every second)
 Body size 15.5mm x 12mm x 5.5mm
 4 pins with 0.1" spacing

DHT22

 Low cost
 3 to 5V power and I/O
 2.5mA max current use during conversion (while requesting data)
 Good for 0-100% humidity readings with 2-5% accuracy
 Good for -40 to 80°C temperature readings ±0.5°C accuracy
 No more than 0.5 Hz sampling rate (once every 2 seconds)
 Body size 15.1mm x 25mm x 7.7mm
 4 pins with 0.1" spacing

SOIL MOISTURE METER, SOIL HUMIDITY SENSOR, WATER SENSOR, SOIL

HYGROMETER FOR ARDUNIO
This is Soil Moisture Meter, Soil Humidity Sensor, Water Sensor, Soil Hygrometer for Ardunio.
With this module, you can tell when your plants need watering by how moist the soil is in your
pot, garden, or yard. The two probes on the sensor act as variable resistors. Use it in a home
automated watering system, hook it up to IoT, or just use it to find out when your plant needs a
little love. Installing this sensor and its PCB will have you on your way to growing a green
thumb!

The soil moisture sensor consists of two probes which are used to measure the volumetric
content of water. The two probes allow the current to pass through the soil and then it gets
the resistance value to measure the moisture value.

When there is more water, the soil will conduct more electricity which means that there will be
less resistance. Therefore, the moisture level will be higher. Dry soil conducts electricity poorly,
so when there will be less water, then the soil will conduct less electricity which means that there
will be more resistance. Therefore, the moisture level will be lower.

Wiring Connection

VCC: 3.3V-5V
GND: GND
DO: Digital output interface(0 and 1)
AO: Analog output interface
 Features :

1. Dual output mode, analog output more accurate

2. A fixed bolt hole for easy installation
3. With power indicator (red) and digital switching output indicator (green)
4. Having LM393 comparator chip, stable.

Package Includes :

1 x Soil Moisture Sensor Kit

DC WATER PUMP

Micro DC 3-6V Micro Submersible Pump Mini water pump For Fountain Garden Mini water
circulation System DIY project. This is a low cost, small size Submersible Pump Motor which
can be operated from a 3 ~ 6V power supply. It can take up to 120 liters per hour with very low
current consumption of 220mA. Just connect tube pipe to the motor outlet, submerge it in water
and power it. Make sure that the water level is always higher than the motor. Dry run may
damage the motor due to heating and it will also produce noise.

SPECIFICATIONS:

 Operating Voltage : 3 ~ 6V

 Operating Current : 130 ~ 220mA

 Flow Rate : 80 ~ 120 L/H

 Maximum Lift : 40 ~ 110 mm

 Continuous Working Life : 500 hours

 Driving Mode : DC, Magnetic Driving

 Material : Engineering Plastic

 Outlet Outside Diameter : 7.5 mm

 Outlet Inside Diameter : 5 mm

SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

Getting Started with NodeMCU using Arduino IDE

Introduction

NodeMCU is Lua based firmware of ESP8266. Generally, ESPlorer IDE is referred for writing
Lua scripts for NodeMCU. It requires to get familiar with ESPlorer IDE and Lua scripting
language.

There is another way of developing NodeMCU with a well-known IDE i.e. Arduino IDE. We
can also develop NodeMCU applications using Arduino development environment. This makes
things easy for Arduino developers than learning new language and IDE for NodeMCU.

Let’s see about setting up Arduino IDE with NodeMCU.

First Download Arduino IDE (version 1.6+) https://www.arduino.cc/en/Main/Software

 Open Arduino IDE and Go to File -> Preference.

 Now on Preference window, Enter below link in Additional Boards Manager URLs

http://arduino.esp8266.com/stable/package_esp8266com_index.json
 Now close Preference window and go to Tools -> Board -> Boards Manager

 In Boards Manager window, Type esp in the search box, esp8266 will be listed there
below. Now select latest version of board and click on install.
 After installation of the board is complete, open Tools->Board->and select NodeMCU
1.0(ESP-12E Module).
  Now Your Arduino IDE is ready for NodeMCU

Example

Let’s see how to write simple serial print sketch using Arduino IDE for NodeMCU.

First connect NodeMCU Development Kit with PC as shown in below figure.

NodeMCU connection with PC

 After setting up Arduino IDE for NodeMCU, open Arduino IDE and write simple sketch
of serial print as shown in below figure.

Arduino Sketch
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600); /* initialise serial communication */
}

void loop()
{
Serial.println("EdugeneTechnologies"); /* print Electronic Wings at new line per second */
delay(1000);
}

 Ensure that you have selected the correct board as shown in below figure. Also make sure
that you have selected the appropriate COM port.

 Now compile & upload the written sketch directly to the NodeMCU Dev Kit by clicking
on upload button.
CONCLUSION
In this paper, IoT technology is used to sense and analyze the temperature, humidity level, soil
moisture level and the rain condition and DC motor is controlled using NodeMCU. All these
values are sent to the smart phone using Wi-Fi. Due to the usage of this system, adequate water
is pumped and rain is also utilized efficiently. This system is very much helpful to farmers as
they need to regularly pump water and check the status of each crop. From anywhere in the
world, farmers can know the values of humidity, temperature and soil moisture and if the DC
motor is ON through the blynk app present in their smartphones.

REFERENCES
[1] Pradyumna Gokhale, Omkar Bhat, Sagar Bhat,"Introduction to IOT", International Advanced
Research Journal in Science, Engineering and Technology (IARJ SET), Vol. 5, Issue 1, January
2018.
[2] Brian Gilmore,"The Next Step in Internet Evolution: The Internet of Things", Internet of
Things, cmswire, Jan 2014.
[3] A.Anusha, A.Guptha, G.Sivanageswar Rao, Ravi Kumar Tenali, “A Model for Smart
Agriculture Using IOT”, International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring
Engineering (IJITEE),ISSN: 2278-3075, Volume-8 Issue-6, April 2019.
[4] Muthunoori Naresh, P Munaswamy,” Smart Agriculture System using IoT Technology”,
International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering (IJRTE), ISSN: 2277-3878,
Volume-7 Issue-5, January 2019.
[5] Nikesh Gondchawar, Prof. Dr. R. S. Kawitkar, ”IOT based smart agriculture”, International
Journal of Advanced Research in Computer and Communication Engineering, Vol. 5, Issue 6,
June 2016.
[6] Anand Nayyar, Er. Vikram Puri,” Smart Farming: IoT Based Smart Sensors Agriculture Stick
for Live Temperature and Moisture Monitoring using Arduino, Cloud Computing & Solar
Technology”, November 2016.
[7] www.wikipedia.org
[8] Sweksha Goyal, Unnathi Mundra, Prof. Sahana Shetty,” SMART AGRICULTURE USING
IOT”, International Journal of Computer Science and Mobile Computing, Vol.8 Issue.5, pg. 143-
148, May