1 Introduction

The "why" of consumption

S.Ratneshwar., David Glen Mick, and
CynthiaHidfman

What is the nature of motives, goals, and desires that prompt consumption
. behaviors? Why do consumers buy and consume particular products, brands,
and services from the multitude of alternatives afforded by their environments?
How do consumers think and feel about their strivings and cravingsand how do
they translate these pursuits into actions? And what explanations might we offer
for differencesin consumer motives and goals across individuals and situations?
These are central questions in any theory of consumer behavior, and this book
attempts to provide a few answers.
Considering our topic, it seems appropriate to first say a little more about the
"why" of this project. The three of us were drawn together by our complementary
research perspectives and the shared perception that there was a strong need for
a volume that would do justice to the truly multifaceted nature of consumer
motivation. We were aware that consumer researchers employing many different
theories and methodologieswere addressing this area. We felt the field needed a
collection of articles that would provide perspective,take stock of recent findings,
offer appropriate theoretical frameworks, and suggest future research directions.
We wanted to put together a volume that included many of the leading voices
that are extending knowledge of the why of consumption in a world where
consumption itself has become-according to many observers-the central and
defining phenomena of human life and societies. With these objectives in mind,
we approached some of the best-known scholars in consumer behavior. Our
• targets were people we respected and people who reflected the plurality of
! perspectives and methods we desired. We were delighted by the uniformly
!!.
favorable and enthusiastic responses we obtained.
1~
.
!0
The resulting collection of chapters in this book presents many diverse ideas
about consumer motivation and how it might be studied. Our authors draw on
multiple literatures includingcognitive, social, clinical,and humanisticpsychology;
behavioral decision-making theory; economics;communicationscience;sociology;
and cultural anthropology.They build on the work of pioneers such as Alderson
(1957), Dichter (1964), Freud (1923/1957), Howard and Sheth (1969), Levy
(1981), Lewin (1936), Maslow (1970), Miller, Gallanter, and Pribram (1960),
Newell and Simon (1972), and Veblen (1899).

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2 SiRatneshioar, David Glen Mick, and Cynthia H1iffina11

Weasked our authors to stake out bold and interesting positions and to avoid
mechanical literature reviews. TI1.e book has no pretensions of being a
comprehensive "Handbook of Consumer Motivation"-some important aspects
of this area such as variety-seeking behavior, impulse buying, and personality
trait theory are either missing or accorded less priority. Nevertheless,the chapters
presented here provide an up-to-date snapshot of the current state of knowledge
concerning numerous key issues on the why of consumption. More importantly,
perhaps, our motives and goals for this project will have been fulfilled if this
volume stimulates further penetratinginsightsin future research on this fascinating
and elemental topic.

Organization of the book

A general organizing framework for the book is shown in Figure 1.1. The central
concern of all of the chapters in this book is the wky of consumption behaviors.
Concepts such as motives, goals, and desires are employed for describing the why.
The reader might wonder, the why of w!zaP. Our authors discuss and explain
motivational factors implicated in a variety of consumption phenomena including
consumer decision-making; consumption of products, services, and time;
compulsive buying; disposition of the remains of consumption; and mutual
influencesbetween consumers and marketing institutions such as the mass media.
Several of the chapters also address linkages between the wky and the how, and
the what and the hoto, by inquiring into cognitive and affective processes which
have a symbiotic relationship with consumer motives, goals, desires, and actions.
An important premise in many of the chapters is also that to get at the wky
question we need to examine the toho: differences among individuals, households,
social groups,genders, religions, nations, and cultures. Finally,some of the chapters
stress that consumption motives and behaviors are located in time and space,
both physical and psychological. Therefore, the authors of these chapters
emphasize the wizen and the where in their explanations by invoking situational
and contextual factors.
Chapters Two to Nine offer specific theoretical frameworks, perspectives,
and points of view. They also often summarize relevant empirical findings.
Collectively, these chapters provide diverse perspectives and approaches for
getting at the central why question. Chapters Ten to Twelveextend our domain
beyond the usual buying and consuming of goods and services, and they do so
in three different directions. ChaptersThirteen to Fifteen mainly offer innovative
methodological tools for the study of consumer motives and goals. They also
offer valuable conceptualand substantive insights that complement the previous
chapters. Chapters Sixteen and Seventeen provide commentaries on the
preceding chapters.
 Introduction: The "why" ef consumption 3

WHO
Inter-Individual, Inter-
Group WHEN,WHERE
and Cross-Cultural
SUuation/Contextual
Differences Among Differences
Consumens

WHY
ConsumptionMotives,
Goals, and Oeslres

HOW WHAT
Cognitive and Affective
Processes ConsumptionBehaviors

FigureI.I The "why" of consumption.

A preview of what follows

In Chapter Two, Huffman, Rameshwar, and Mick put forward an integrative
framework that addresses the hierarchicalstructure of consumer goals as well as the
processes by which goals are determined.Their six-level model of consumer goal
structure spans the realms of being, doing, and having. Goal determination processes
include top-down ("incorporation")and bottom-up ("abstraction") influencesamong
goals at different levels, as well as the influence of contextual factors on goals
("adaptation''). Huffman et al. also discuss the dynamics of goal change and how
consumers might deal with goal conflict, Their framework, when considered as a
whole, focuses on the wl,y and hoto of consumption decisions and actions, but also
links these factors to who (especially the self), when, and where {situation/context).
In Chapter Three, Bagozzi, Baumgartner, Pieters, and Zeelenberg examine
the linkages between emotions and goal-directed behavior. In contrast to the
cognitive, problem-solving perspective found in Chapter Two, Bagozzi et al.
emphasize the multi-faceted role of affect and emotions in explaining wliyand lww
people strive to achieve goals. They offer an innovativetaxonomy for research in
this area wherein (1) emotions are conceptualized in terms of either underlying
dimensions or discrete categories, and (2) behavioral effects deal with either
currentlyexperienced emotions or anticipated future emotions. They then discuss
4 SiRatneshioar, David Glen Mick, and Cynthia H1iffina11

unresolved issues and a research agenda for the field to move toward an integrated
conceptualization of the role of emotions in a theory of goal-directed behavior.
In Chapter Four, Luce, Bettman, and Payne offer a different viewpoint on the
relationship between affect and goals by examining how the minimizing of negative
emotions in decision-making can be an important meta-goal in and of itself. With
this meta-goal in mind, they discuss necessary modifications in the standard effort-
accuracy paradigm for studying decision trade-offs, Luce el al. first summarize
the aneecedenis of emotional trade-off difficulty, Next, they discuss how decision-
makers cope with emotion-laden trade-offs. The consequences of such coping
implicate dependent variables such as information-processing effort, processing
patterns, decision rules, and decision outcomes. Luce et al. suggest several intriguing
propositions for both the antecedents and the consequences of trade-offs involving
negative emotions. They also conclude with a discussion of future research
directions and methodological issues.
In Chapter Five, Kardes and Cronley explore further the how and the
relationship between h<TW and why. They proceed from the theoretical position
that beliefs are "possessions" that people are quite reluctant to give up-a simple
proposition, but one that leads to interesting consequences for the study of
consumer motivation and persuasion. Kardes and Cronley first build on Katz
(1960) and relate different belief functions to approach versus avoid tendencies;
for doing so, they employ theories of self-regulation. They then discuss the manner
in which chronic, self-related factors as well as situational influences affect why
people approach and avoid particular end-states. Using this theoretical foundation,
they offer a contingency model for predicting the types of persuasion appeals
most likely to succeed in changing consumers' beliefs.
In Chapter Six, Belk, Ger, and Askegaard not only dig deep into the why but
also take a dig at a rational, "passionless" view of needs and goals. Instead, they
emphasize desire as a powerful motivational force, unleashed by external objects
and the human body rather than the mind, fueled by imagination and fantasy,
and characterized by a complete domination of one's thoughts, feelings, and
actions. Belk el al. trace how Freud's psychoanalytic legacy evolved into Lacan's
(1970) influential work on the nature of desire. They discuss how social and
cultural forces shape desire in individuals. They then link desire to notions of
pleasure, joy, control, and transgression in the context of Western and Eastern
religion and moral philosophy. Belk el al. also discuss the emotional and behavioral
correlates of desire and the future role of this construct in consumer research.
In Chapter Seven, Thompson examines the postmodern ("porno") movement
in consumer research and its implications for the why of consumption. He describes
the historic.-tl background and origins of postmodern theorizing and discusses
the relationship between postmodernism and popular culture. Thompson then
offers us "the absolute, scientific truth" about porno consumer goals and actions
with concepts such as nostalgia and re-enchantment, communal consumption,
 Introduction: The "why" ef consumption 5

and bricolage and identity-creation. He also discusses why and how postmodern
consumers choose to engage in acts of flexible and ironic consumption. He
concludes by reflecting on the challenges and rewards of studying the why of
postmodern consumers.
In Chapter Eight, Arnould and Price make a strong case for tying the why
(motives) and what (consumption behaviors) to who (self and community). They
do so by suggesting that people's strivings toward self-authentication and sense
of community drivemany consumption behaviors. They first provide an overview
of postmodern issues and trends (e.g. globalization and deeerrieorializaeion), both
in an individual'sconstruction of the self and in the social dynamic of communities.
Next, they discuss how people respond to these trends via self-authenticatingacts
and authoritativeperformancesthat reaffirm a collective sense of identity.Arnould
and Price then illustrate how consumption objects and experiences play a key
role in constructing a sense of self and community. They also identify and discuss
important obstacles to self-authenticatingacts and authoritativeperformances.
In Chapter Nine, Hirschman and Stem give us a different perspective on the
who by examining images and representations of women in film and television
over the last several decades. Beginning with the depictions of women in ancient
cultures, they suggest how these have been carried forward into today's mass
media. Their analysis focuses on the content of top movies and television shows
since the late 1930s and up to present times. Hirschman and Stern highlight the
core meanings and subtle messages in media representations of female roles and
identities (e.g. as "Nurturant and Destructive Goddesses" and "Passive
Princesses"). They also link popular media images of women to sociocultural
themes such as androgyny and the American Dream. They suggest how media
depictions of female roles, goals, and identities are constantly evolvingand yet, in
many ways, are always reminiscent of the ancient.
In Chapter Ten, Faber examines the wliy of compulsive buying and the diverse
motives and reasons underlying this abnormal consumer behavior. He first
providesa broad overview of research on compulsivebuying. Faber then introduces
and applies a uses and gratifications framework for understanding the phenomena.
He suggests that motives for compulsive buying fallin the categories of surveillance
(e.g. a desire to experience new products), enhancement of personal identity,
construction of personal relationships, and diversion. He also discusses the role
of factors such as gender, social systems, and cultural characteristicsin compulsive
buying. Overall, Faber's framework not only links the why and what of compulsive
consumption to who (i.e. one's culture and self-identity) but also implicates the
how by suggesting that compulsive buying can be used in the service of affect
(mood) management.
In Chapter Eleven, Warlop, Smeesters, and Vanden Abeele examine the why
and what of garbage disposition behavior from a social marketing perspective.
They discuss the potential trade-offs and goal conflicts faced by consumerswhen
6 SiRatneshioar, David Glen Mick, and Cynthia H1iffina11

it comes to sorting and recycling household waste. Warlop et al. argue that many
social marketing programs aimed at promoting recycling behavior assume
unreasonable amounts of consumer involvement and mental control in day-to-
day matters. They suggest that social marketers instead might adopt a low-
involvement model of the consumer. In this vein, social marketers could implement
tactics similar to the marketers of consumer packaged-goods and just prime their
target consumers with simple, frequent, and to-the-point messages. Warlop et al.
thus emphasize that successful communication strategies involve a solid
understanding of the relationship between the why (goals and motives for particular
behaviors) and the hour (cognitive decision processes).
In Chapter Twelve, Corre and Ratneshwar address time consumption by
delving into why people do whatever it is that they do with their discretionary
time. They argue that decisions to engage in particular activities are often
related to an individual's timestyle, i.e. how a person perceives, plans, and
thinks about time. Cotte and Ratneshwar put forward a four-dimensional,
integrative framework for timestyle. They then suggest a variety of factors
that can shape rimesryle, ranging from factors such as culture and family
socialization to individual-difference factors such as life themes and values.
They also discuss situational influences such as a person's work versus home
environment. Cotte and Ratneshwar then suggest how cimesryle could be
related to leisure consumption decisions and discuss future research
directions.
In Chapter Thirteen, Escalas and Bettman examine how narratives help
us understand consumption motives. They first provide a conceptual
overview of narrative structure, quality, and processing. They then discuss
in detail the functional aspects of narratives, especially in the construction
and maintenance of one's self-identity. Escalas and Bettman subsequently
illustrate how narratives provide insights into consumer motives and goals.
They focus their discussion on the structural analysis of narratives and
contrast it against content analysis. They propose three general propositions
regarding relationships between consumer goals and narrative quality,
narrative genre, and narrative elements. In each case, they address relevant
methodological issues and provide empirical support. As part of their chapter,
Escalas and Bettman also provide useful scale items for coding narrative
structure.
In Chapter Fourteen, Coulter and Zalunan argue for the power of metaphor
in uncovering consumer goals and motives. Their position is that much thought
is unconscious and that metaphors and idiomatic expressions serve as handy
vehicles for transporting less-than-conscious thoughts into consciousness. Coulter
and Zaltman discuss different types of metaphors and how they help us understand
a variety of consumer goals and motives. They then suggest how a specific
metaphor-based method, the Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique (ZMET),
 Introduction: The "why" ef consumption 7

provides significantinsights into consumer motives. Using ZMET data on people's

ideas and perspectives regarding good oral hygiene and visits to the dentist, Coulter
and Zaltman illustrate the role of various metaphors in fathoming the why of
consumer behaviors.
In Chapter Fifteen, Brownstein, Sirsi, Ward, and Reingen discuss the use of
lattice analysis for exploring the interfacesbetween cognitive and socialphenomena
in consumer motivation. They point out that consumption beliefs are typically
influenced by others in one's social environment. Hence, we need to understand
how people's belief structures and social structures interact in jointly determining
consumption behaviors. Towards this end, Brownstein et al. discuss the analysis
of dual-mode data involving groups of respondents and their consumption beliefs.
Using several illustrative examples, they show how the Galois lattice technique
enables meaningful graphic representation of such data. For instance, lattice
diagrams can depict the ideological structure that motivates some consumers to
consume or avoid particular foods. Simultaneously,such lattices can also reveal
relationships between individuals' beliefs and social structure and important
differences between expert and novice consumers.
Finally, in Chapters Sixteen and Seventeen, Kernan and Rook round out
our collection by providing insightful and witty commentaries on the previous
fifteen chapters and the research area more generally. Kernan argues that
the "why" of consumption represents not one, but three very different kinds
of questions, depending on the metaphoric model assumed. Rook comments
on theory and method in motivation research and points out four key issues
that need resolution.

References
Alderson, W. (1957) Marketing Behauior and Executioe Action, Homewood, IL: Richard
D.Irwin.
Dichrer, E. (1964) The Haru.lbook efumsw11erMotioatums, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Freud, S. (1957) The Ego and the Id, inJ.Srrachey (ed. and trans.) Standard Edition ef lhe
Complete Ryc/10/ogicoi T#Jrk.r ef Sigmund Freud (pp. 85-132), London:Hogarth Press.
(Original work published 1923.)
Howard,J.A. and Sheth,J.N. (1969) Tiu: T)ieory efBuyerBehavior, New York: Wiley.
Katz, D. (1960) "The functional approach to the study of attitudes," Public Opinion Qyorterly
24 (2):163-204.
LacanJ. (1970) "Of structure as an inmixing of an otherness prerequisite to any subject
whatever," in R.Macksey and E.Donato (eds) Tlt.e La:nguage.sefCritici.s111and the Sciences ef
Man, Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press.
Levy, SJ. (1981) "Interpreting consumer mythology: a structural approach to consumer
behavior," Joumal efMarketing45 (Summer):49-61.
Lewin, K. (1936) Principles efTopologic.aiRydwlogy, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Maslow, A.H. (1970) Motivatwn and Persorudily, 2nd edition, New York: Harper & Row.
8 SiRatneshioar, David Glen Mick, and Cynthia H,iffinan

Miller, GA., Galanter, E., and Pribram, K.H. (1960) Plans and the StructureefBehavior, New
York: Holt.
Newell, A. and Simon, H.A. (1972) Human Problem Soluing, Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Veblen, T. (1899) 771e Theory efthe leisure Class, reprinted in 1973 with an introduction by
J.K.Galbraith, Boston: Houghton Miffiin.
2 Consumer goal structures and
goal-determination processes

An integrative framework
Cynthia H'lfffinan, S.Ratneshwar, and
David Glen Mick

Over a half-century ago, Alderson (1957) argued that consumer behavior is best
understood as problem-solving behavior. His functionalist approach was
fundamentally concerned with the goals toward which consumers strive and the
processes through which they seek to attain these goals. Unfortunately,attention to
the nature and role of consumer goals waned afterward, due in large part to the
information-processingrevolution that swept both psychology (see, e.g., Sorrentino
and Higgins 1986) and consumer research (e.g. Alba and Hutchinson 1987).
In the last decade or so, however, psychology has witnessed a renaissance of
interest in goal-directedbehavior (e.g. Bandura 1989; Cantor 1990; Cantor et al.
1987; Carver and Scheier1996; Markus and Ruvolo1989), most impressivelyevinced
in Austin and Vancouver's (1996) comprehensive review and in books edited by
Gollwitzerand Bargh (1996), Pervin (1989), and Higgins and Sorrentino (1990). So
too, researchon goals in consumer behavior is now receivingvigorous attention (e.g.
Bagozziand Dholakia 1999; Bettman etal.1998; Huffmanand Houston 1993; Kleine
et al. 1993; Park and Smith 1989; Pieters et al. 1995; Ratneshwar et al. 1996; Walker
and Olson 1997; Reynolds and Gutman 1988; Sirsi et al. 1996).
Not surprisingly, the rapid growth and eclecticism of recent research in
consumer goals has led to valuable but highly fragmented insights as each
researcher has invariably emphasized different issues. For instance, some
researchers have focused mainly on the structural relations between different
goal levels, particularly those who have worked within the means-end paradigm
(see, e.g., Pieters et al. 1995; Reynolds and Gutman 1988; sec also Kleine et al.
1993; McCracken 1986; and Walker and Olson 1997 for alternative paradigms
with a structural emphasis). Most often these studies have directly connected the
being side of life (e.g. an individual's values or social identity) with its havingside
(preferred products and their features), typically via hierarchies in which
consumers' values drive the desired psychosocial consequences of product
consumption, and the latter,in turn, influenceproduct preferences.As yet, however,
consumer researchers have not effectively bridged higher and lower goals with