Itp Quiz Reviewer Finals Part 1

MEMORY
• Memory is an information processing system; therefore, we often compare it to a computer.

• Memory is the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different
periods of time.
• The higher-order cognitive process that describes the temporal aspect of our mental
organization, whether in terms of logic or intellect (Savage, 2018).
• Importance: It plays a crucial role in human thinking, enabling people to recall and utilize
past experiences to shape their comprehension and actions in the current moment.
Additionally, it furnishes individuals with a structure for comprehending the present and
anticipating the future.
ENCONDING
• the input of information into the memory system.
• Once we receive sensory information from the environment, our brains label or code it.
• We organize the information with other similar information and connect new concepts to
existing concepts. Encoding information occurs through automatic processing and
effortful processing.
AUTOMATIC PROCESSING EFFORTFULL PROCESSING

• Encoding of details like time, space, • required a lot of work and attention
frequency, and the meaning of words. on your part in order to encode that
• Done with CONCIOUS AWARENESS, information.
• E.g. If someone asks you what you ate • E.g. recalling the actual test material
for lunch today, more than likely you you studied
could recall this information quite /
easily / Recalling the last time you /
studied for a test is another example
of automatic processing.
THREE TYPES OF ENCONDING

SEMATIC - the process of converting sensory input into meaningful, long-term memories by
associating new information with existing knowledge and experiences. / Encoding of words and
their meanings into memory.
• first demonstrated by William Bousfield (1935) in an experiment in which he asked people to
memorize words. The 60 words were actually divided into 4 categories of meaning, although the
participants did not know this because the words were randomly presented. When they were asked
to remember the words, they tended to recall them in categories, showing that they paid attention to
the meanings of the words as they learned them.
VISUAL - is the encoding of images.

• To see how visual encoding works, read over this list of words: car, level, dog, truth, book, value. If you
were asked later to recall the words from this list, which ones do you think you’d most likely
remember? You would probably have an easier time recalling the words car, dog, and book, and a
more difficult time recalling the words level, truth, and value. Why is this? Because you can recall
images (mental pictures) more easily than words alone. When you read the words car, dog, and book
you created images of these things in your mind. These are concrete, high-imagery words. On the
other hand, abstract words like level, truth, and value are low-imagery words. High-imagery words
are encoded both visually and semantically (Paivio, 1986), thus building a stronger memory.
ACOUSTIC – is the encoding of sounds.

• You are driving in your car and a song comes on the radio that you haven’t heard in at least 10 years,
but you sing along, recalling every word.
• Learning the Alphabet through a song.
Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving (1975) - Conducted a series of experiments to find out which of
the three types of encoding is the best memory for verbal information.
Words that had been encoded semantically were better remembered than those
encoded visually or acoustically. Semantic encoding involves a deeper level of processing than the
shallower visual or acoustic encoding. Craik and Tulving concluded that we process verbal
information best through semantic encoding, especially if we apply what is called the self-reference
effect.
The self-reference effect - is the tendency for an individual to have better memory for information
that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance (Rogers, Kuiper &
Kirker, 1977). Could semantic encoding be beneficial to you as you attempt to memorize the
concepts in this chapter?
STORAGE
• Once the information has been encoded, we have to somehow have to retain it.
• Our brains take the encoded information and place it in storage.
• Storage is the creation of a permanent record of information.
In order for a memory to go into storage (i.e., long-term memory), it has to pass through three
distinct stages: Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, and finally Long-Term Memory. These
stages were first proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968).
Atkinson-Shiffrin (A-S) Model
• it is a model of human memory that is based on the belief that we process memories in the
same way that a computer processes information.
THREE STAGES OF MEMORY STORAGE

SENSORY - stimuli from the environment are processed first in sensory memory: storage of
brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. It is very brief storage—up to a couple of
seconds.
• Throughout every moment of your life, your senses are continuously absorbing a vast volume of data
related to what you observe, touch, smell, hear, and taste. While this information is important, there
is simply no way to remember each and every detail about what you experience at every moment
(Cherry 2023).
• If we view something as valuable, the information will move into our short-term memory system.
STROOP EFFECT - describes why it is difficult for us to name a color when the word and the color of the word
are different. E.g., the word “red” will be named more quickly, regardless of the color the word appears in,
than any word that is colored E.g.,
• Selective Attention Theory - when we select which information we would process and be aware of, and which
information we would ignore. E.g., Identifying the coler of the words takes more attention than simply reading
the text. Therefore, this theory suggests that our brains process the written information instead of the colors
themselves.
• Automaticity Theory – it is a cognitive processing includes automatic and controlled thinking. E.g., The brain
likely reads the word because reading is more of an automated process than recognizing colors.
• Speed of Processing Theory – E.g., We can process written words faster than we can process colors. Thus, it is
difficult to identify the color once we’ve already read the word.
• Parallel Distributed Processing - The brain creates different pathways for different tasks. Therefore, it’s the
strength of the pathway that plays an important role in which is easier to name, the color or the text.
SHORT-TERM - is a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory;

sometimes it is called working memory.
• STM takes information from sensory memory and sometimes connects that memory to
something already in long-term memory.
• Short-term memory storage lasts about 20 seconds.
George Miller (1956), in his research on the capacity of memory, found that most people can
retain about 7 items in STM. Some remember 5, some 9, so he called the capacity of STM 7 plus or
minus 2.
Rehearsal - the conscious repetition of information to be remembered, to move STM into long-
term memory is called memory consolidation.
LONG-TERM - is the continuous storage of information. Unlike STM, LTM has no limit capacity.
• It encompasses all the things you can remember that happened more than just a few
minutes ago to all of the things that you can remember that happened days, weeks, and
years ago.
TWO TYPES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY

EXPLICIT MEMORY (Declarative) are those we consciously try to remember and recall.
Episodic Memory
• refers to any events that can be reported from a person’s life. Also called autobiographical
memories as we can remember certain moments from our lives.
• E.g., remembering that one time you accidentally bent a spoon.
• Super Episodic/Autobiographical Memory is called hyperthymesia which is the uncommon
ability that allows a person to spontaneously recall with great accuracy and detail a vast
number of personal events or experiences and their associated dates.
Semantic Memory
• Stores knowledge about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts.
• Memory of meanings. / General knowledge
• E.g., Knowing what, who, when, where, and why of a specific topic i.e. What is a spoon, who
uses a spoon, When and where do we use spoons, and Why do we use a spoon?
IMPLICIT MEMORY (Non- Declarative) are memories that are not part of our consciousness. They
are memories formed from behaviors. Not part of our consciousness (Unconscious).
Procedural Memory
• refers to our knowledge of skills and how to perform tasks and is something we mostly
remember automatically. (memory of how to do things.)
• E.g., “muscle memory” when idols dance.
• previous experiences help in performing a task better without explicit and conscious
awareness of previous experiences.
• known to form one’s personality as it's closely related to forming one’s habits.
• In certain memory disorders like Alzheimer's disease, procedural memory is known to
function better than declarative memory.
• E.g., How to use a spoon / how to eat using a spoon.
Emotional Conditioning
• things we learned through conditioning or unconscious association.
• E.g. After always salivating to the scent of sinigang, when you hear that your food would be
sinigang, you unconsciously salivate.
AMNESIA
• Amnesia is the loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical
trauma, or psychological trauma.
• Possible causes: Sometimes it’s a symptom of other conditions, but it can also happen on its
own. It can involve past memories, or you can have trouble making and storing new
memories. Treating the underlying cause may reverse it, but some causes are permanent.
• Greek and means, “forgetfulness.” But it’s more than that. Forgetfulness is misplacing your
keys or not remembering to do something while running errands. Amnesia involves being
unable to remember significant events or details from your life.
CONFABULATION
• It is what people with amnesia may experience. This is when your brain automatically tries
to fill in memory details and makes a mistake. E.g., misremembering what day an event
happened on recently, or the details of an event from your past.
• People who have confabulation believe their memory is genuine and accurate. They don’t
intend to lie or deceive. It’s just an error that happens without their knowledge. Ordinarily,
confabulation is harmless. But it can become a bigger issue and may be something you
notice when memory loss is more severe.
Memory and Amnesia

It can be helpful to understand the different types of memory that can be affected when amnesia
occurs. First, we can divide memory into declarative or non-declarative.
• Declarative memory - refers to the recollection of facts, whether as part of a specific event
or just as unrelated information. Declarative memory can be further divided into episodic
and semantic memory, which refers to whether the memory involves connections to times
or places.
✓ Episodic memory refers to autobiographical information that includes
temporal or spatial context. E.g., you might remember what happened on a
particular vacation.
✓ Semantic memory refers to factual information without any association to
events that happened in your past. E.g., you might remember that you own a
bike, but don't remember where you bought it or where you have ridden it.
• Non-declarative memory - is also known as procedural memory and refers to
remembering how to do something, such as riding a bike or making a phone call.
RETRIEVAL
The act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness is
known as retrieval.
There are two common types of amnesia: anterograde and retrograde.
ANTEROGRADE
• commonly caused by brain trauma, such as a blow to the head.
• cannot remember new information, although you can remember information and events
that happened prior to your injury.
• The hippocampus is usually affected (McLeod, 2011).
• This suggests that damage to the brain has resulted in the inability to transfer information
from short-term to long-term memory; that is, the inability to consolidate memories.
• Many people with this form of amnesia are unable to form new episodic or semantic
memories but are still able to form new procedural memories.
Other causes for Anterograde Amnesia:
✓ Drug use: Short-term anterograde amnesia may result from the use of certain drugs.
✓ Benzodiazepines: This type of medication has been linked to anterograde amnesia, along with the use
of non-benzodiazepine sedatives such as zolpidem (Ambien).
✓ Brain inflammation: Inflammation of the brain such as encephalitis has been linked to signs of
anterograde amnesia.
✓ Brain surgery: Patients who had parts of the brain removed, such as the MTL, have shown to have
impairments related to anterograde amnesia.
✓ Stroke: Stroke has been linked to anterograde amnesia.
✓ Alcohol blackout: A person who consumes a large amount of alcohol in a short period of time may
experience a loss of memory for the time period that they were drinking. However, after the episode,
their memory functioning would return to normal.
✓ Chronic alcoholism: Drinking a lot over time can result in a thiamine (B1) deficiency, leading to
Korsakoff syndrome, which causes significant problems in anterograde episodic memory.
✓ Concussion/sports injury: Concussion and sports injury to the head have been linked to anterograde
amnesia.
✓ Electroconvulsive therapy: ECT is an effective treatment for depression. Anterograde amnesia is one
observed side effect, although research suggests that this effect may be temporary or short-term.
Treatment of Anterograde Amnesia - While there is no cure for anterograde amnesia, some
recovery and rehabilitation may be possible—even with permanent damage. Treatments for anterograde
amnesia are primarily aimed at managing the condition. The following strategies are often used:
✓ Reminders such as alarms
✓ Journals, notes, or diaries
✓ Family support
✓ Occupational therapy
✓ There is no FDA-approved medication treatment for amnesia. But vitamin B1 (thiamine) supplements
may be used in instances where there is a vitamin deficiency. Technology tools can also be used to
help, often in the form of daily planners and reminder apps.
RETROGRADE
• The loss of memory for events that occurred prior to the trauma.
• People with retrograde amnesia cannot remember some or even all of their past.
• They have difficulty remembering episodic memories.
• E.g., you woke up in the hospital one day and there were people surrounding your bed
claiming to be your spouse, your children, and your parents? The trouble is you don’t
recognize any of them.
Retrograde amnesia is caused by damage to parts of the brain that play a role in memory and
emotion. This may include injury, illness, and stress. Potential causes include:
• Cardiac arrest: A heart attack can lead to a temporary lack of oxygen to the brain, which
may lead to retrograde amnesia, other cognitive problems, or brain damage.
• Disease: Progressive conditions such as Alzheimer’s, Huntington’s, and multiple
sclerosis may lead to symptoms of retrograde amnesia.
• Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): ECT is a treatment for depression and other
psychiatric conditions that involves inducing a seizure with a brief electrical current. It
can cause retrograde memory loss. It may improve with time, but some people
experience persistent memory gaps.
• Infections: Brain infections such as encephalitis can sometimes cause retrograde
amnesia.
• Nutritional deficiencies: Excessive, chronic alcohol intake can lead to a thiamine (B12)
deficiency called Korsakoff’s syndrome. People with Korsakoff's syndrome experience
symptoms of retrograde amnesia caused by decreased hippocampal volume.
• Seizures: Seizures due to epilepsy or other causes can also damage areas of the brain
associated with memory.
• Traumatic brain injury (TBI): Damage to the brain due to stroke, injury, or other causes
can lead to memory loss.
MEMORY CONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION

• The formulation of new memories is sometimes called construction, and the process of
bringing up old memories is called reconstruction. Yet as we retrieve our memories, we also
tend to alter and modify them.
• A memory pulled from long-term storage into short-term memory is flexible. New events
can be added, and we can change what we think we remember about past events, resulting
in inaccuracies and distortions.
• People may not intend to distort facts, but it can happen in the process of retrieving old
memories and combining them with new memories (Roediger and DeSoto, in press).
Suggestibility - describes the effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the
creation of false memories.
E.g., When someone witnesses a crime, that person’s memory of the details of the crime is very important in catching the
suspect. Because memory is so fragile, witnesses can be easily (and often accidentally) misled due to the problem of
suggestibility.
Eyewitness Misidentification - Even though memory and the process of reconstruction can be
fragile, police officers, prosecutors, and the courts rely on eyewitness identification and testimony
in the prosecution of criminals. However, faulty eyewitness identification and testimony can lead to
wrongful convictions.
The Misinformation Effect
• Cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Loftus has conducted extensive research on memory. She
has studied false memories as well as recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse. Loftus
also developed the misinformation effect paradigm, which holds that after exposure to
incorrect information, a person may misremember the original event.
• According to Loftus, an eyewitness’s memory of an event is very flexible due to the
misinformation effect.
Controversies over Repressed and Recovered Memories.

• Other researchers have described how whole events, not just words, can be falsely recalled,
even when they did not happen. The idea that memories of traumatic events could be
repressed has been a theme in the field of psychology, beginning with Sigmund Freud, and
the controversy surrounding the idea continues today.
• Recall of false autobiographical memories is called false memory syndrome. This
syndrome has received a lot of publicity, particularly as it relates to memories of events that
do not have independent witnesses—often the only witnesses to the abuse are the
perpetrator and the victim (e.g., sexual abuse).
• The Recovered Memory Project was created so that victims of childhood sexual abuse can
recall these memories and allow the healing process to begin.
FORGETTING
refers to loss of information from long-term memory.
ENCODING FAILURE
• Sometimes memory loss happens before the actual memory process begins, which is
encoding failure. We can’t remember something if we never stored it in our memory in the
first place.
• Often, in order to remember something, we must pay attention to the details and actively
work to process the information (effortful encoding).
MEMORY ERRORS - Psychologist
Daniel Schacter (2001), a well-known
memory researcher, offers seven ways
our memories fail us. He calls them the
seven sins of memory and categorizes
them into three groups: forgetting,
distortion, and intrusion.
• TRANSIENCE - which means

that memories can fade over
time.
• ABSENT-MINDEDNESS - We
are all prone to committing
memory errors.
• BLOCKING - you can’t access stored information.
• MISATTRIBUTION - This error happens when you confuse the source of your information,
or mistakenly thinking you've witnessed or listened to something that you actually haven't.
• SUGGESTIBILITY - Similar to misattribution, since it also involves false memories, but it's
different in this error, you create the false memory entirely on your own
• BIAS - says that your feelings and view of the world can distort your memory of past events.
There are several types of bias:
Stereotypical bias - involves racial and gender biases.
Egocentric bias - involves enhancing our memories of the past. E.g., Did you really
score the winning goal in that big soccer match, or did you just assist?
Hindsight bias - happens when we think an outcome was inevitable after the fact.
This is the “I knew it all along” phenomenon. The reconstructive nature of memory
contributes to hindsight bias (Carli, 1999). We remember untrue events that seem to
confirm that we knew the outcome all along.
• PERSISTENCE - When you keep remembering something, to the point where you can’t “get
it out of your head” and it interferes with your ability to concentrate on other things, it is
called persistence. For instance, have you ever had a song play over and over in your head?
How about a memory of a traumatic event, something you really do not want to think about?
INTERFERENCE
It is sometimes when information is stored in our memory, but for some reason it is inaccessible.
TWO TYPES OF INTERFERENCE

PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE: when old information hinders the recall of newly learned
information.
• When older memories interfere with the retrieval of newer memories. Sometimes, it makes it more
difficult to learn new things.
RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE: happens when information learned more recently hinders the
recall of older information.
• Newer memories interfere with the retrieval of older memories. Learning new things can
make it more difficult to recall things that we already know.
MEMORY-ENHANCING STRATEGIES
• REHEARSAL: or the conscious repetition of information to be remembered
• CHUNKING: you organize information into manageable bits or chunks. Chunking is useful
when trying to remember information like dates and phone numbers. E.g., instead of trying
to remember 5205550467, you remember the number as 520-555-0467.
• ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL: a technique in which you think about the meaning of new
information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your memory). It involves both
linking the information to knowledge already stored and repeating the information. E.g., in
this case, you could remember that 520 is an area code for Arizona and the person you met
is from Arizona. This would help you better remember the 520 prefixes. If the information is
retained, it goes into long-term memory.
• MNEMONIC DEVICES: are memory aids that help us organize information for encoding.
They are especially useful when we want to recall larger bits of information such as steps,
stages, phases, and parts of a system (Bellezza, 1981).
How to Enhance Memorization to Study Effectively?

• Use elaborative rehearsal: If we want to remember a piece of information, we should think
about it more deeply and link it to other information and memories to make it more meaningful.
• Apply the self-reference effect: Write notes in your own words.
• Don’t forget the forgetting curve: As you know, the information you learn drops off rapidly with
time. Even if you think you know the material, study it again right before test time to increase the
likelihood the information will remain in your memory. Overlearning can help prevent storage
decay.
• Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse: Review the material over time.
• Be aware of interference
• Keep moving: exercise promotes neurogenesis: the growth of new brain cells.
• Get enough sleep
• Make use of mnemonic devices
STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
Introduction to Psychology (PSY1101)
Prof. Rowie Ortiz | Group 3 Student Facilitated Class
WHAT IS CONSCIOUSNESS?
CONSCIOUSNESS is a multifaceted concept that every human being undergoes on a regular

basis. This part of the mind has been widely known as the most complex concept to handle, making
scientists, theorists, or researchers run around in circles with no agreed fixed theory on
consciousness. Despite that, there is still a universal agreement in the way consciousness is
processed and subjected to human minds (Van Gulick, 2022).
It grants humans the ability to perceive their surroundings and become aware of both internal
and external stimuli – also called sensory awareness. This covers a wide range of mental processes
given that it recognizes internal – pain, thoughts, emotions, hunger, et cetera, and external stimuli
– smelling a sweet pie, seeing your friend run to you, feeling the sudden change in temperature when
you enter a classroom, and hearing your professor speak in front of the class.
Sigmund Freud, as represented by

Figure 1, divided the mind into three (3)
levels of awareness; conscious,
preconscious, and the unconscious
mind. It will then be explained by order:
Conscious mind – composed of the

things a person is currently aware of
and is effortlessly being processed by
their brain.
For example, you feel your knee aching
Freud’s Iceberg Theory
due to a wound you got from
Source: SimplyPsychology playing with your little cousins.
yesterday.
Preconscious mind – carries the thoughts, memories, stimuli, etc. that the person is currently
not aware/not thinking of but is easily reached and brought to the conscious mind.
For example: you are about to open your shoe locker and it asks for your password, thus
naturally it will be pulled to the conscious mind because you needed it to open the shoe locker.
Unconscious mind – translates into the direct and primary source for human behavior, as
Figure 1 depicts, it is the deepest part of the mind and cannot be seen (Mcleod, 2023). It is a
huge archive where our instincts roots from and holds all the wishes, impulses, repressed
feelings, etc. made from memories/emotions that a person is threatened to acknowledge.
Humans are not aware of these and cannot be explained to the conscious mind.
(Pugosa, Baquiran, Bernardino, Cervantes, Dela Cruz, Meier, Ong,Tapang) 1

But, how can we pull those of the unconscious mind to the conscious mind? Although
components of the unconscious mind cannot be made fully aware and pulled to the conscious mind,
even if attempted and if one makes an effort to, there are still ways that it can be conveyed without
being fully aware of it:
○ It can be triggered and acted out unconsciously; and

○ These emotions are painted into art
Repression – It is one of the defense mechanisms the human mind carries out, in
order to keep away threatening thoughts or emotions from the conscious mind.
This mechanism of repression is not successful especially for the long term as the
longer it is stored in the unconscious mind, it starts to mold and show into our behavior
or dreams called Freudian slips (Mcleod, 2023).
Suppression – As contrasting to repression done by the unconscious mind,

suppression is done consciously. It is the act of consciously trying to block
thoughts or impulses that a person is currently aware of, and does not want.
There are also different states of consciousness characterized by the difference of

wakefulness to deep sleep.
Wakefulness – is the conscious state, wherein one is alert, aware, and most definitely
awake. When qualities of wakefulness is reduced it leads to daydreaming, intoxication,
meditative states, hypnotic states or hypnagogia, and lastly the unconscious state, sleep
(Spielman et al., 2014).
Sleep – is the unconscious state, wherein one has little to no physical activity, alertness, and
awareness but with the brain still active. Being the resting phase of consciousness, sleep is
regarded as having restorative effects which refreshes the mind.
Apart from the conscious and unconscious state there is also a state we call
subconsciousness. Often confused and used interchangeably with unconsciousness, this term is
rarely defined properly even in literature 100 years after Freud introduced it (Miller, 2010). Freud
proposed that consciousness is more than “on” and “off,” putting across that there are also some
memories and basic motivations that aren’t present in our conscious state of mind (Biswas-Diener &
Teeny, 2019). This is not of the preconscious state as whatever effort a human may relay to it, it will
not appear in the conscious mind, meaning, things of the subconscious state never arise to an
awareness of a person.
These states can offer unique insights into the fragility and flexibility of our conscious
experiences. Understanding consciousness is essential in psychology as it plays a critical role in
shaping human behavior, decision-making, and overall mental health. It continues to be a complex
and fascinating area of research in the field.

BIOLOGICAL RHYTHM
- Are bodily changes acquired from biological processes that follow a certain repetitive
pattern in which it is looped and carried out again after a certain amount of time. These
can be influenced or controlled by internal and external factors.
A distinct example of biological rhythms is a complete menstrual cycle, which averages to

twenty-eight (28) whole days.
Yet most biological rhythms are shorter than that of a menstrual cycle. One that is done again
after a twenty-four (24) hour cycle is called a circadian rhythm. These types of rhythms are often
associated with the bodily functions that are most essential like: heart rate, hormonal activity,
digestion, body temperature (the higher the body temperature is, the higher the alertness is), et
cetera. For circadian rhythm, a distinct example is where humans align their sleep and wake cycle to
the natural light of the current environment (Spielman et al., 2014).
Circadian Rhythm Length Variations - Early Birds and Night Owls

Source: Shutterstock
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) – is where the biological clock is found, it works

coordinately with the eye – specifically the light-sensitive axons in the retina – and provides
the SCN of how much light there is present. This information is then processed by SCN which
allows it to synchronize its brain clock to the external world. It is located in the hypothalamus
which is the main producer of homeostasis – maintains a biological system’s stability.
PROBLEMS WITH CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
Although the sleep-wake cycle and the SCN’s operation towards it, not everyone is aligned to
the time of the outside world. An important factor to the regulation of the sleep-wake cycle is the
release of the hormone called melatonin.
Melatonin – induces sleep, it is a hormone released (by the pineal gland) when the SCN
perceives the natural light to be dark.
Chronotype – these are traits inhibited by organisms which determine their preferences
on the wakefulness and sleep of the consciousness.
Circadian rhythms differ on each individual’s chronotype and may be affected by internal and
external factors as well. Some people would call themselves morning larks or night owls, and
research confirms that these people differ in their sleep regulation (Spielman et al., 2014).
Sleep regulation – it is within the brain’s control whether an organism should exhibit
wakefulness or sleep, it also synchronizes with the natural light of the outside world.
One way to incite disruptions towards the circadian rhythm or the normal sleep is to confuse
the brain clock synchronization with the outside world. These changes in the environment are
demonstrated in actions such as; jet lag and rotating shift work.
Jet lag – this is associated with people who quickly go through multiple time zones
causing confusion towards their own brain clock synchronization with day and night. Its
symptoms according to BetterHealth Channel includes: fatigue, sleepiness, digestive upsets,
impaired judgment and decision making, memory lapses, irritability and lastly apathy (2014).
Rotating shift work – this is associated with people (mostly medical workers) who work
non-traditional hours which is time outside the traditional 8:00 am to 4:30pm or people
who change schedules frequently from early to late that makes it difficult for the
circadian rhythm to be maintained (Wickwire et al., 2016).
These disruptions to the circadian rhythm present multiple consequences such as sleeping
problems (insomnia), mental health problems (depression and anxiety), and mental cognition (unable
to focus or lapses in memory). Nevertheless, for people who struggle with their circadian rhythm to be
out of balance with the external environment, they may use a night light as the brain clock relies on
the amount of light in the outside world to synchronize itself.
Unfortunately, despite the night light helping those individuals with problems in their circadian
rhythm, it may also be a factor in desynchronizing your brain clock. While it most definitely helps in
lightening up dark spaces for individuals who are night owls or active during night, it also gives them
deficits in sleep which leads to sleep debt.
Sleep debt – it is the accumulated sleep deprivation a person has when they do not get
sufficient sleep daily due to external and internal factors. This is noticeable when a person
lies down and/or becomes stationary and falls asleep immediately, it is mostly due to sleep
debt.
These sleep debt roots from the lack of sleep hours a person should be sleeping. The need
for sleep varies per individual and their ages; it is estimated that infants require more sleeping hours
to function properly or to replenish their brain’s energy.

SLEEP NEEDS AT DIFFERENT AGES
- According to Singh & Suni

sourced from American Academy of
Sleep Medicine (2023), these are the
recommended amount of hours to
sleep at a certain age.
- The lack of sleep can result in
a decreased awareness and
alertness of the surroundings,
weakened cognitive function of the
brain, and even depression-like
symptoms.
- Not only does it affect the
consciousness, it also affects the
physical and biological parts of the
Recommended Hours of Sleep - body such as its connection with
Source: American Academy of Sleep Medicine obesity, increased blood pressure,
levels of stress hormones, and
reduced immune functioning & motor functioning (Spielman et al., 2014).
WHAT IS SLEEP?
- The term “sleep” is often associated with several definitions and meanings such as minimized
sensory awareness and decreased physical activity.
- According to Spielman et al., (2014), the definition of sleep must also include the
relevance of the interplay of the circadian and homeostatic systems that regulate sleep.
Homeostatic regulation of sleep is characterized by sleep rebound wherein sleep deprivation
follows.
- Sleep is also defined depending on the patterns of activity that the brain undergoes.
These activities can be visualized using the electroencephalography (EEG). This instrument
displays the kind of activities that the brain performs in order to regenerate and recover. The
sleep-wake cycle is facilitated by several brain areas that are operating cooperatively with one
another.
- Furthermore, sleep can be defined as a period of rest that includes both REM (rapid eye
movement) and non-REM sleep periods. During sleep, our bodies and minds go
through a variety of activities in order to recharge and regenerate. It includes resting
the body to recover from the usage of energy all throughout the day. Among these
processes include dreaming, memory consolidation, and physical recuperation. The process of
sleeping is associated with the secretion and regulation of a certain quantity of hormones from

endocrine glands such as the follicle stimulating hormones (FSH), melatonin, growth
hormones, and luteinizing hormone (LH).
A. Sleep rebound – The response that our body gives us when we experience
extreme tiredness or stress. When given another chance to sleep, a sleep deprived
individual will generally take less time to fall asleep.
B. Sleep-wake cycle – Is controlled by numerous brain areas that work together including
the thalamus, hypothalamus, and pons. Since the hypothalamus contains the
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), the body's biological clock, it regulates
slow-wave sleep along with other nuclei that conjunct with the thalamus. The
pons are necessary for the regulation of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep.
Why do we sleep?
Sleep is a key physiological and neurological phenomenon for human existence and
general well-being. It is characterized by a reduction in sensory awareness and voluntary muscle
activity and is a common, recurring condition of altered consciousness. One would think that we
would have a firm grasp on why we sleep but, unfortunately, we still have no understanding, although
various suggestions have been presented to explain its significance.
A. Adaptive function of sleep

○ One popular hypothesis of sleep, based on evolutionary psychology, suggests
that sleep may be essential to restore resources expended during the day,
akin to how bears hibernate during resource-scarce winters. However, this
idea lacks substantial supporting research.
○ Another evolutionary hypothesis proposes that sleep patterns evolved as a
response to nocturnal predatory risks, with humans sleeping in safe areas
to reduce harm. Nevertheless, research on this relationship is complex and
inconclusive, with some species sleeping less when facing higher predation
risks.
○ In essence, sleep may not serve a single universally adaptive function, and
various species have evolved different sleep patterns due to their unique
evolutionary pressures. Adequate sleep offers multiple benefits, including
maintaining a healthy weight, reducing stress, improving mood, enhancing motor
coordination, and benefiting cognition and memory formation.
B. Cognitive function of sleep

○ One theory regarding the purpose of sleep centers on its significance for
cognitive function and memory formation. Sleep deprivation can lead to
disruptions in cognition and memory, impairing attention, decision-making,
and long-term memory recall. These impairments worsen with increased
sleep deprivation.

○ Slow-wave sleep following the acquisition of new information can enhance

subsequent task performance and is vital for effective memory formation.
○ Cognitive benefits: improved creative thinking, language learning, inferential
judgments, and possibly even the processing of emotional information. In
summary, understanding the impact of sleep on cognitive function highlights the
ineffectiveness of late-night cramming and the potential advantages of a
well-rested mind.
DIFFERENT BRAIN WAVES THAT OCCUR DURING SLEEP
Before we categorize and differentiate the stages of

sleep, there are types of brain waves that these stages
are composed of, which are:
A. Alpha waves – these waves are being
produced when people are feeling calm and relaxed
and when the brain is hibernating without concentrating
on something (Cherry, 2023). It measures between 8
and 12 Hz
B. Theta waves – is classed as a “slow activity”
that has 3.5-7.5 Hz. These waves are important in
processing information and making memories, and
occur during light sleep or deep relaxation.
Brain waves that occur in every stages of sleep C. Delta waves – waves with 0.5 and 4 Hz that
Source: CourseHero occur during the deepness of sleep.
THE STAGES OF SLEEP
According to Verywell Health (2023), there are four stages of sleep that are categorized in
two phases. The first three are called the Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) sleep, and the fourth
one is called the Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep.
1. Stage 1: NREM Sleep

● Wakefulness to sleep.
● If you rouse someone up at this stage, they might wake up right away.
● This stage lasts for around five to ten minutes and the brain is still active and
produces alpha waves.
● Indications:
○ Brain slows down
○ Your heartbeat, eye movements, and breathing slow down
○ Your body relaxes and muscles might twitch


● Lasts for about 20 minutes.
● Produces theta waves which are: sleep spindles and K-complex.
○ Sleep Spindle – burst of high frequency waves that are helpful to learning and
memory
○ K-complex – high-intensity rhythm of brain activity which can arise in reaction to
external stimuli in some instances.
● Indications:
○ You become less aware of your surroundings
○ Your body temperature drops
○ Your eye movement stop
○ Your breathing and heart rate become more regular

● This stage is called 'delta sleep'
● Slow brain waves called delta waves begin to surface
● Noises from the environment or any sort of activity may not awaken a sleeping
individual.
● If you had enough NREM Stage 3 sleep, you will feel refreshed the next day
○ Interestingly, some people who have their delta waves increased stated that
during Stage 3 and 4, they do not feel refreshed waking up regardless of
how long they have slept.
● Indications:
○ Your muscles are completely relaxed
○ Your blood pressure drops and breathing slows
○ You progress into your deepest sleep
4. Stage 4: REM Sleep

● Voluntary muscles are disabled
● It is still composed of delta waves.
● Dreaming occurs in this stage.
● Begins approximately 90 minutes after falling asleep.
● REM Rebound – when people are deprived of REM sleep, they spend more time in
REM sleep in order to make up with the lost REM time.
● Indications:
○ Your brain lights up with activity
○ Your body is relaxed
○ Your breathing is faster and irregular
○ Your eyes move quickly
○ You experience dreaming

Dreams
Dream interpretation differs across cultures and time periods. Sigmund Freud, a German
psychiatrist, in the late 19th century, said that dreams offered a window into the unconscious.
Freud believed that by studying dreams, people may become more self-aware and receive important
knowledge that would aid them in resolving their personal issues. The visible and hidden contents of
dreams were distinguished by Freud.
The reason why most people cannot recall their dreams, is that in the process of REM sleep
transitioning to wakefulness, it gets lost in the process. Although for those who do recall, dreams
consist of the residues of the day and/or can be the past events or memories that a person constantly
thinks about. It can also be composed of unresolved stressors the dreamer currently has. These can
be conveyed in either of the two types of dream content.
Two Types of Dream Contents
A. Manifest content – the actual content, or storyline, of a dream

○ It is the element of the dream that you remembered when you wake up (Cherry,
2020).
○ Freud believed that manifest content is the door to latent content as manifest
content is the disguised imagery and events of latent content.
B. Latent content – refers to the hidden meaning of a dream.

○ Example: Freud said that a woman's fear of sexual intimacy is represented by
her dream of being chased by a snake, with the snake serving as a metaphor for
a man's penis.
However there are also dreams we call lucid dreams. It is a phenomenon wherein the
dreamer becomes aware that they are currently dreaming and is also able to control the
contents of the dream. After a dreamer wakes up from lucid dreaming, they vividly recall the dream
content. There is no explanation as to how it is triggered and used by people who are blessed with
this skill, but researchers say it might be connected to psychopathologies (Braindwein, 2023).
SLEEP PROBLEMS AND DISORDERS
With the combined references from Spielman, et.al’s Psychology book (2014),
Cleveland Clinic’s article entitled ‘Sleep disorders: Conditions that prevent you from getting
restful sleep’ (2023), and Torres (2023) from American Psychology Association’s article
entitled ‘What are Sleep Disorders?’, these are the following sleep problems and disorders an
individual may encounter:
1. Insomnia – Is characterized by difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or experiencing

non-restorative sleep. For example, if you lie in bed for hours, unable to fall asleep even
though you are tired.
2. Parasomnias
● Sleepwalking
○ Sleepwalking, also known as somnambulism, is characterized by the sleeper
engaging in complex behaviors ranging from walking around to driving a
car. Sleepers frequently have their eyes open during episodes of sleepwalking.
They are open, yet they do not respond to attempts to interact with them.
○ Can be experienced in Stages 3 and 4 (NREM) of sleep.
○ Homicidal Sleepwalking - when a person awakens, they learn they have
murdered someone while sleeping with no recollection of their deeds while
sleeping (e.g. Case of Scott Falater).
● REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (RBD)

○ A condition experienced during the REM phase of sleep in which a person acts
out his dreams. During the REM phase of sleep, the brain is normally active
but our muscles are paralyzed (muscle atonia) to prevent us from acting
out our dreams. However, in RBD, this muscle paralysis is lost.
○ These actions might range from kicking to biting. hitting, scratching, shouting,
and acting like a terrified or attacked animal.
● Sleep Paralysis
○ Sleep paralysis is experienced when an individual has awareness as the body is
entering or exiting REM sleep. The body is paralyzed but you are aware,
which might invoke a feeling of panic, suffocation or hallucinations.
○ According to Stanford Medicine (2023), “Sleep paralysis is a normal part of
REM sleep. However, it is considered to be a disorder when it occurs
outside of REM sleep.”
● Restless Leg Syndrome

○ Characterized by an uncomfortable sensation in the legs, which leads to an
irresistible urge to move them, often disrupting sleep.
● Night Terrors
○ Night terrors are episodes of intense fear and panic during sleep,
sometimes accompanied by screaming and confusion, unlike usual dreams,
when you wake up these dreams are vivid and can be described specifically –
these also occur in the REM sleep.
○ Unlike nightmares, they do not usually wake you. These can disrupt sleep
and leave the person feeling distressed.
3. Sleep Apnea – Involves repeated interruptions in breathing during sleep, leading to

brief awakenings. An example would be loud snoring followed by gasping for air and then a
return to sleep multiple times throughout the night.

4. Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) – This is when an infant stops breathing during
sleep and dies. Sadly, there are no symptoms or warning signs, making the cause unknown.
5. Hypersomnia – involves excessive daytime sleepiness, making it difficult to stay awake

during the day.
● Hypersomnia is a symptom of Narcolepsy.
6. Narcolepsy – Is a neurological disorder that causes sudden, uncontrollable episodes of

sleep during the day. These episodes are commonly linked with cataplexy which is the
sudden muscle weakness that occurs in the body.
7. Circadian Rhythm Disorders

● Known as ‘Body’s 24-hour internal clock’
● These disorders involve disruptions to the body’s internal clock. For instance, shift
work disorder is a type of circadian rhythm disorder where working irregular hours can
lead to sleep difficulties and fatigue.

Altered States of Consciousness
Group 5 Lecture Notes / Student-Facilitated Class Discussion
PSY1101 Sec 10 / YEAR 1 / SEM 1 / A.Y. ‘23-’24
Far Eastern University – Manila
CONSCIOUSNESS
● As stated by Spielman (2014), consciousness pertains to one’s awareness of internal
stimuli, including “pain, hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and being aware of our thoughts and
emotions,” and external stimuli, such as “seeing the light from the sun, feeling the
warmth of a room, and hearing the voice of a friend” (p. 112). Everyday, a person
experiences various states of consciousness, which may range from total awareness to a
deep sleep.
ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
● An altered state of consciousness (ASC) is a change in one's normal mental state
which may be caused by a trauma or drug administration. In this case, the person is
not unconscious. Rather, “ASC is a relative state of mental functioning” (Srinivasan,
2015).
● In ASCs, the patterns of conscious experience differ from the ordinary, and the contents
of consciousness do not consistently reflect the immediate environment. The most
frequent ASCs are dreaming, various sleep-related hallucinations, and changes in
experience brought on by hypnotic suggestions. Emotionally pleasurable and desirable
ASCs are known as exceptional states (also known as higher states of consciousness), and
some of them have spiritual significance for the subject who experiences them.
Exceptional states of consciousness include those experienced during meditation, flow,
lucid dreaming, near-death encounters, and mystical states (Revonsuo, 2009).
Altering Consciousness through Drugs

● A psychoactive drug is “a chemical that changes our states of consciousness, and
particularly our perceptions and moods” (Walinga & Stangor, 2014) and can act as
agonists or antagonists of a specific neurotransmitter (Spielman, 2014).
● Tolerance, or the increase in the required dosage to produce the same effect, causes a
user to develop dependence on it (Walinga & Stangor, 2014) and a person who is
psychologically dependent on a drug may use it to relieve psychological distress
Prepared by: Tayug, A.M., Apolinario, K.Y., Chae, S.I., Custodio, P.M., Decrepito, M.A., Raquipiso, F.A., Sioson,
J.L., and Zabala, A.L.
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(Spielman, 2014). Eventually, drug-dependent users who wish to stop may experience
withdrawal, which are negative symptoms that follow the dose reduction or total
discontinuation of drug use (Walinga & Stangor, 2014). The four main classes of
psychoactive drugs are depressants, opioids, stimulants, and hallucinogens.
CLASSIFICATION OF PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS

Depressants
● Depressants are drugs that slow down the central nervous system (CNS). They are
commonly used to promote relaxation, alleviate anxiety, muscle tension, and prevent
seizures. These drugs come in the form of pills, syrups, and injectable liquids.
Depressants are also commonly prescribed medications that have multiple uses, including
pain relief, reducing heart rate and respiration, and treating seizures. These drugs alter
consciousness by impacting the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain, specifically by
increasing GABA production and decreasing acetylcholine production. This
mechanism primarily affects the thalamus and reticular formation. The overall effect of
depressant use is similar to the effects of sleep, as it reduces the transmission of signals
from the lower brain to the cortex (Csaky & Barnes, 1984, as cited in University of
Minnesota, 2015). As GABA agonists, depressants are also used to treat anxiety and
insomnia since they have a quieting effect on the brain (Spielman, 2014).
Alcohol
○ Alcohol is a colorless liquid, produced by the fermentation of sugar or starch, that
is the intoxicating agent in fermented drinks. It is classified as a psychotropic
depressant due to its ability to decelerate the functioning of the central nervous
system (CNS). At the same time, it increases the production of
neurotransmitters that make you feel good (INTEGRIS Health, 2022). In small
to moderate doses, alcohol initially works to decrease social inhibitions by
slowing down activity in the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). In higher doses,
alcohol affects the cerebellum, resulting in impaired coordination and balance,
2
which is evident in the unsteady gait of intoxicated individuals. When blood

alcohol levels are excessively high, further CNS depression occurs, leading to
symptoms such as dizziness, nausea, and ultimately loss of consciousness
(Hamre & West, 1993). Additionally, a pregnant woman who consumes alcohol
regularly may give birth to a baby with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) or
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) (Spielman, 2014).
Barbiturates
○ Barbiturates are a group of sedative-hypnotic medications used for treating
seizure disorder, neonatal withdrawal, insomnia, preoperative anxiety, and
induction of coma for increased intracranial pressure, as well as for inducing
anesthesia (Sneyd, 2017). In small to moderate doses, barbiturates produce
relaxation and sleepiness. However, due to their potential for addiction, safety
concerns, and the availability of safer alternatives like benzodiazepines,
barbiturates are now rarely prescribed (United States Drug Enforcement
Administration, n.d.). The increasing use of barbiturates carries substantial
dangers, such as lethargy, cognitive impairment, slowed speech, drowsiness,
faulty judgment, and eventually coma or even death. Additionally, excessive
and long-term use of barbiturates can lead to chronic symptoms that include
changes in alertness, decreased functioning, irritability, and memory loss
(Medline Plus, 2008).
Opioids
● Opiates are derived from natural sources, such as opium, morphine, codeine, and
heroine. On the other hand, opioids are typically synthesized in laboratories and not
derived from plants. Both groups are “narcotics,” which simply means sleep-inducing
or numbness-inducing. The term “opioid” is commonly used to refer to all these drugs,
although some still use the terms interchangeably (Oregon.gov, n.d.).
3
○ Opioids are substances that

enhance the function of opioid
receptor neurons in the brain
and digestive system. This
stimulation leads to various
effects such as euphoria, pain
relief, slower breathing, and constipation.
Chemically, opioids have a resemblance to
endorphins, which are the body's natural pain-relieving neurotransmitters. The
activation of opioids in the body’s sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous
system (ANS) causes an increase in blood pressure and heart rate, often
reaching dangerous levels that can lead to heart attack or stroke.
Simultaneously, opioids also affect the parasympathetic division, resulting in
constipation and other negative side effects. Opioid withdrawal symptoms include
diarrhea, insomnia, restlessness, irritability, and vomiting, accompanied by a
strong craving for the drug (Kosten & George, 2002).
Stimulants
● Stimulants are psychoactive drugs that have a tendency to raise the overall levels of
brain activity by blocking the reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin.
Given that these neurotransmitters remain active in the CNS, there is an increase in the
activity of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). With this,
its effects include increased heart and breathing rates, pupil dilation, increased blood
sugar, and decreased appetite, which is why stimulants are often used to help people
stay awake and control weight (Walinga & Stangor, 2014). Drugs in this category include
cocaine, amphetamines, and nicotine (Spielman, 2014).
4
Cocaine
○ Cocaine is a highly addictive substance made from the leaves of the coca plant.
The strength and duration of its effects, including increased energy and reduced
fatigue, depend on its administration. The faster the drug enters the
bloodstream and gets to the brain, the higher its intensity is. Snorting cocaine
results in a slower, weaker high than injecting or smoking it. However, the effects
wear off more quickly the faster the medicine is absorbed. Snorting cocaine may
provide a high that lasts 30 minutes, whereas smoking "crack" cocaine may
produce a high that lasts only 10 minutes (Walinga & Stangor, 2014).
○ Crack cocaine is more addictive than cocaine because it is smokable and it
reaches the brain immediately.
Additionally, it is frequently less expensive
than other types of cocaine, making it a
more readily available substance for those
from less affluent social groups (Haasen &
Krausz, 2001; Reinerman, 2007, as cited in
Spielman, 2014).
Amphetamines
○ Amphetamines are stimulants that produce “increased wakefulness and focus,
along with decreased fatigue and appetite” (Walinga & Stangor, 2014). They
also block dopamine reuptake in addition to stimulating its release and are
commonly prescribed to patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) (Spielman, 2014).
○ These stimulants can have serious detrimental effects if used frequently. Physical
symptoms include nausea, raised blood pressure and accelerated heart rate.
Additionally, these medications have been linked to paranoia, hallucinations,
and anxiety (Fiorentini et al., 2011, as stated in Spielman, 2014). A very high
tolerance level to amphetamines may lead users to increase their intake,
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frequently in "jolts" taken every hour or so. They can also cause severe
psychological reliance, which is equivalent to addiction. Severe psychological
depression could follow from continued stimulant usage (Walinga & Stangor,
2014).
○ Methamphetamine is a type of amphetamine made from accessible ingredients
and is highly preferred by users, partly because it is available in ampoules
ready for use by injection (Csaky & Barnes, 1984, as mentioned in Walinga &
Stangor, 2014).
Nicotine
○ Nicotine is a highly addictive psychoactive drug “found in tobacco and other
members of the nightshade family of plants,
where it acts as a natural pesticide.” It is also the
primary cause for the dependence-forming
properties of tobacco use and is one of the
hardest addictions to overcome since it can
lead to psychological and physical dependence
(Walinga & Stangor, 2014).
○ Nicotine boosts heart rate and the amount of oxygen
the heart consumes while producing a momentary feeling of relaxation and
well-being. It causes a surge of endorphins, which are substances that reduce
tension and discomfort and boost mood, upon entrance to the body. Nicotine
levels reach their peak in the body fast therefore, the emotions of satisfaction
are transient. People may then become trapped in a loop of smoking more to
maintain their enjoyment. Dopamine, a neurotransmitter that is a component of
the brain's reward system and induces emotions of pleasure and reward, is
likewise increased by nicotine (Sissons, 2022).
6
Hallucinogens
● Hallucinogens are psychoactive drugs that create the most extreme alteration of
consciousness by altering sensation and perception through one or more senses, thus
producing hallucinations. Its effects on a user are the integration of his pre-existing
mental state, expectations of the drug, and the actual function of the drug itself. The
hallucinations caused by these drugs are more similar to dreams than everyday
consciousness and experiences (Walinga & Stangor, 2014). As Spielman (2014) added,
it is also common for these drugs to produce hallucinations of body sensations and an
uneven perception of the passage of time. Its examples include marijuana (cannabis)
and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD).
Marijuana (Cannabis)
○ Marijuana, also known as cannabis, weed, pot, or dope, refers to the dried
flowers, leaves, stems, and seeds of the cannabis plant. It contains more than
100 “impairing” or “mind-altering” compounds (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, n.d.).
○ Marijuana produces various effects, which is why it can also be classified as a
depressant and a stimulant. As a depressant, it causes relaxation, sleepiness,
short-term memory loss, and dizziness (Cherney, 2023). It also acts as a
stimulant by producing giggling, laughing, mild intoxication (Walinga &
Stangor, 2014), elevated moods, racing heartbeat, anxiety, and paranoia.
Lastly, it can act as a hallucinogen by causing detachment from self or
environment, loss of control over motor skills, and visual or auditory
hallucinations (Cherney, 2023).
Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)
○ LSD is a colorless and odorless hallucinogenic drug derived from a fungus and a
non-organic chemical called diethylamide and can be taken orally. It causes
immediate drug tolerance to a user and can trigger various perceptual
changes and hallucinations, including distorted shapes, blurred vision, shaking,
lightheadedness, sense of euphoria, rapid mood swings, and unusual insight or
7
terrifying thoughts. LSD can also trigger panic attacks, psychotic episodes, and
anxiety (Davis, 2023).
HYPNOSIS AND MEDITATION

Hypnosis
● Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815)
○ an Austrian doctor who believed that all living
bodies were filled with magnetic energy.
○ Mesmer conducted a practice by applying magnets to
his patients' bodies while simultaneously assuring
them that their physical and psychological issues
were going to heal. Patients who awoke feeling
improved after frequently entering a trancelike state
(they described as "mesmerized") (Hammond,
2008, as cited in Walinga & Stangor, 2014).
● Despite the fact that subsequent study investigating
the efficacy of Mesmer's techniques found no long-term benefits in his patients,
the idea that people's experiences and behaviors could be modified through
the power of suggestion has remained relevant in psychology (Walinga &
Stangor, 2014).
● James Braid (1795-1860)
➢ a Scottish physician.
➢ In 1843, he developed the term hypnosis, based on the Greek word meaning
sleep (Callahan, 1997, as cited in Walinga & Stangor, 2014).
Definition
● Hypnosis is a state of “extreme self-focus and attention,” with little attention
paid to external stimuli (Spielman, 2014, pp. 138).
8
● Hypnosis is defined as a trancelike state of consciousness, generally brought on

by a treatment known as hypnotic induction, which consists of heightened
suggestibility, deep relaxation, and intense focus (Nash & Barnier, 2008, as
cited in Walinga & Stangor, 2014).
● In a therapeutic context, a clinician may utilize relaxation and suggestion to
attempt to alter a patient's thoughts and perceptions. Hypnosis has also been used
to extract information thought to be deeply embedded in someone's memory
(Spielman, 2014).
● Hypnosis, along with other techniques, is mainly used for various therapeutic
purposes and has proven to be somewhat effective in relieving pain, treating
depression and anxiety, and losing weight (Alladin, 2012; Elkins, et al., 2012;
Golden, 2012; Montgomery, et al., 2012, as mentioned in Spielman, 2014).
Process of Hypnosis
● For individuals who are especially open to the power of suggestion, hypnosis can
prove to be a very effective technique, and brain imaging studies have
demonstrated that hypnotic states are associated with global changes in brain
functioning (Del Casale et al., 2012; Guldenmund et al., 2012, as cited in
Spielman, 2014).
● These steps enable you to be more susceptible to the heightened suggestibility of
hypnosis (National Research Council, 1994, as cited in Spielman, 2014):
1) The individual is instructed to concentrate on one object, such as the
hypnotist's words or the ticking of a watch.
2) The individual is made to feel at ease and directed to become relaxed and
sleepy.
3) The individual is instructed to be open to the hypnotic process, to trust the
hypnotist, and to let go.
4) The individual is encouraged to use their imagination.
9
Two theories that suggest why hypnosis works. (Spielman, 2014)

1. Hilgard's Neodissociation Theory - This theory suggests that hypnosis is a state
of dissociated consciousness, where a person's awareness is split or separated
from their usual experiences. The dissociation theory of hypnosis likens the
hypnotic state to situations where individuals engage in routine tasks while
their attention is directed elsewhere. As a result, there is little awareness of the
task at hand. This idea is confirmed by Ernest Hilgard's experiment, which
involved participants who were induced into a hypnotic state and subjected to
painful stimuli such as soaking in ice water. Surprisingly, these people claimed
not to feel pain but would still press a button if they did. Individuals appear to
detach their sensory experiences from their awareness while in the hypnotic state,
implying a definite separation or dissociation of consciousness.
2. Social Cognitive Theory. - This theory views people in a hypnotic state as
accomplishing a socially accepted role or expectation of a hypnotized
individual. Based on this perspective, a person's behavior in a hypnotic state is
shaped by their previous views of how one should act in that specific setting
or situation, similar to how individuals conform to societal roles in diverse
contexts. In contrast to the idea of a completely altered state of awareness, this
theory emphasizes the significance of expectations and social influences in
determining the behaviors and experiences of persons under hypnosis.
Misconceptions about Hypnosis

● Hypnosis has been sometimes viewed with skepticism due to its portrayal in
popular media and entertainment. A common misconception regarding hypnosis
is that the hypnotist may “take control” of hypnotic patients and force them to act
against their will. (Jamieson & Hasegawa, 2007, as cited in Walinga & Stangor,
2014). It is crucial to distinguish between hypnosis as a therapeutic treatment and
as a kind of entertainment. Contrary to popular opinion, hypnotized individuals
typically retain vivid memories and maintain control over their behavior.
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Hypnosis may improve memory or skills, however the effects are minor (Raz,
2011, as cited in Spielman, 2014).
Meditation
● Meditation is an act that involves applying a combination of mental and physical
approaches to focus or clear your thoughts (Cleveland Clinic, 2022). It is also a way of
relaxing your body and mind to reduce the amount of stress and anxiety.
● The initial purpose of meditation is to aid in a deeper comprehension of life's mystical
and sacred elements. But nowadays, meditation is frequently used to unwind and
reduce tension.
● It is possible to train attention and awareness through the practice of meditation, which
involves focusing the mind on a single object, idea, or action in order to create an
intellectually clear, emotionally peaceful, and stable state.
How Meditation Works

● As Acebal (2022) mentioned, the medial prefrontal cortex responds to stress
and anxiety, triggering the amygdala to release the stress hormone cortisol.
Meditation disrupts this link by reducing your response to stress and anxiety,
leading to a decreased signal to the amygdala, resulting in a reduced release of
cortisol and effective stress level management. This describes how practicing
meditation helps lessen stress and anxiety, which reduces depression. In addition,
meditation increases neuroplasticity, which is the capacity to alter our brain's
architecture and structure by forming new neural pathways. Thus, meditation
aids in altering the brain's structure to favorably change how people perceive
themselves, other people, and their surrounding world.
● According to cardiologist Herbert Benson (n.d., as cited in Davis, 2005), our
metabolism decreases along with our blood pressure and also helps in
improving our heart rate, respiration, and breathing as a result of meditation.
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Guidelines for Practicing Meditation

● Meditation is merely the act of clearing one's mind while focusing on a particular
thing, such as humming a song, envisioning peaceful scenery, or taking deep
breaths. Though there is no one correct way to meditate, specialists have
discovered some common approaches that can be used in the process, such as
"Mindfulness Meditation,” which is about staying present rather than
allowing your mind to wander and ponder the past or future (U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, 2022).
● Simply observing thoughts, feelings, and environmental elements makes this
technique. Patience and self-control may be needed for this. The practice of
mindfulness meditation is particularly well-liked by people who are dealing with
addiction, despair, or anxiety (Olendzki, 2009).
Differences between Hypnosis and Meditation

According to Anbar (2021), both hypnosis and meditation involve changing the mindset.
However, the path to achieving this change is different.
Hypnosis Meditation
“The state of focused attention in which “The use of a technique to train attention
people can be more responsive to suggestion” and awareness with the purpose of achieving
(Ma, 2021). mental clarity, calm, and stability” (Ma, 2021)
Focus on the relief of pain and discomfort, Focus is on “being in the moment”
enhancing academic/athletic performance,
and gaining of insight
A relaxed, focused state of awareness where It is to accomplish various physical and

the regular critical faculties are mental practices
momentarily bypassed
It is a dream-like state It is a discipline that sees the best results

when practiced consistently overtime
12
It tends to be solution and goal-oriented It increases a person’s sense of

present-moment awareness
It is characterized as a state of concentration It is a practice of focused concentration,

that makes people more receptive to advice bringing yourself back to the moment over
and over again
Examples: Examples:
● Daydreaming ● Mindfulness
○ It is an act of refocusing ○ It is a form of meditation in
attention from one’s external which you concentrate on
surroundings. being completely unperturbed
● Losing track of time. by what you’re sensing and
● Letting boredom lull you into a feeling at the same time.
drowsy state. ● Transcendental Meditation
○ For example, when you are ○ It is when you silently repeat a
listening to a boring speech. word or phrase in your mind to
settle yourself into deep
consciousness (Cleveland
Clinic, 2022).
● Mantra Meditation
○ It is a relaxation response that
uses a repeated word or phrase.
It typically involves
continually repeating a chosen
word, phrase or set of syllables
(silently or aloud) while
passively disregarding any
internal or external distractions
(Lynch et al., 2018).
Similarities between Hypnosis and Meditation

As Penazzi and De Pisapia (2022) mentioned, hypnosis and meditation are both
conditioned with consciousness and practices in developing an effortless absorbed state of
attention.
13
● Stress Management.
○ Hypnosis allows a person to resist tension (Nicholls, 2019) and meditation allows
a person to calm their nerves down (Mayo Clinic, 2022). Additionally, both
methods give a person a state of relaxation.
● Better Sleep Quality.

○ Hypnosis stimulates relaxation and alters a person's thoughts and emotions (Suni
& Suni, 2022).
○ Meditation slows down a person's heart rate and their cortisol, a stress hormone of
the body. It can also relieve anxiety, depression, and stress, and may help alleviate
one’s pain, allowing them to sleep better (Segal, 2021).
● Pain Management.
○ Hypnosis alters an individual's attention from the sensation of pain by helping
through relaxation and managing the fear and anxiety that relates to the person's
pain. Hypnosis can also be used for related disease experience and chronic
conditions such as arthritis (Arthritis Foundation, n.d.).
○ Meditation that is associated with mindfulness can lower pain sensitivity which
includes beginners to meditation (Zeidan et al., 2018).
● Treatment of Mood and Anxiety Disorders.

○ Hypnosis can benefit with post trauma anxiety, crisis management, grief, and
depression (WebMD, 2021).
○ Meditation will not cure disorders such as bipolar, but it can help improve a
person's overall mood. It can also aid long term mood symptoms which reduces
extreme episodes (Meissner, 2021).
14
CONCLUSION
Our consciousness is what may define us. It may become what we fundamentally believe
in ourselves. With this, it is important to practice regulating our consciousness, whether it be
through drug or non-drug intervention, such as hypnosis and meditation. These are the methods
that may help alleviate the troubles we face from daily exposure to various internal and external
stimuli. However, one must take note that excessive drug intervention could also deteriorate our
physical and overall well being, which is why regulation of these medications is highly
significant in maintaining one's health.
15
SLEEP PROBLEMS AND DISORDER
WHAT IS INSOMNIA?
It is one of the most common sleep disorders, wherein an individual consistently struggles
to fall or stay asleep for at least three nights a week throughout one month.
• According to research, many people's insomnia could be triggered by certain
physiological stimulations that happen at unfavorable periods, disrupting one's usual
sleep cycles and such stimulation may result in an increased heart rate, a rise in body
temperature, and an increase in particular hormones, such as cortisol (Suni & Suni, 2023).
Insomnia, a prevalent sleep disorder, can disrupt your ability to initiate sleep, maintain it,
or achieve restful sleep, even when conducive conditions and sufficient time for sleep are present.
The impact of insomnia extends to daily activities, often causing daytime sleepiness.
SYMPTOMS OF INSOMNIA TREATMENTS TO INSOMNIA

• Waking up several times during the • Limit the use of stimulant drugs, such
night. as caffeine.
• Long delays between the times that • Increase the amount of physical
they go to bed and actually fall asleep. exercise during the day.
• Increased levels of anxiety about their • Over-the-counter (OTC) or prescribed
inability to fall asleep. sleep medications.
• Daytime fatigue (tiredness or • If insomnia is continuous and affects
sleepiness). the person's quality of life, seek
• Poor concentration and focus; professional treatment immediately.
difficulty paying attention, focusing on • Cognitive-behavioral therapy - a type
tasks, or remembering. of psychotherapy that focuses on
• Difficulty socializing, working, or cognitive processes and problem
studying. behaviors (such as stress
management techniques and changes
in problematic behaviors.
Sleepwalking (somnambulism) involves individuals engaging in relatively complex behaviors

while still asleep. These behaviors can range from simple activities like wandering around to more
complex actions such as driving an automobile.
• Sleepwalkers often have their eyes open during these episodes but are unresponsive to
attempts at communication. Sleepwalking tends to occur most frequently during slow-wave
sleep, which is a deep stage of sleep. However, it is noted that in some affected individuals,
sleepwalking can potentially occur at any time during a sleep period. This phenomenon
highlights the complexity of sleep disorders and the various manifestations they can take in
different individuals.
PARASOMNIA
Parasomnia is a type of sleeping disorder that involves unusual activity or experience before
or during sleep that increases arousal causing disruption of sleep.
• It causes the brain to be more conscious and partially awake compared to usual sleep and it
loses awareness of what is happening in the surroundings.
• It may happen when the transition of the five stages of sleep is disturbed by noise,
temperature, breathing, etc. while a person is still slightly awake.
THESE RAPID EYE MOVEMENTS, OR REMS, EARNED REM SLEEP ITS NAME.
TWO CATEGORIES OF PARASOMIA (NREM & REM)

NREM-Related parasomnia
• occurs during the first three (3) stages of NREM sleep wherein an individual is partially
awake or asleep and only sends a limited response to others who try to intervene or interact
during the sleep.
• Most people in this stage have little to no memory of what occurred while sleeping.
• NREM parasomnia are also categorized as arousal disorder wherein the motor behaviors
and emotion are emerging.
THREE STAGES OF NREM.

Stage 1
• This sleep stage is when heartbeat, eye movements, brain waves, and breathing activity begin to taper
down.
• Motor movements also diminish, although you may experience muscle twitches called hypnic jerks.
• Hypnic Jerks, people often report feeling like they are falling, seeing flashing or blinding lights or
hearing banging, crackling, or snapping sounds.
• The first episode of stage 1 sleep usually only lasts a few minutes.
Stage 2
• NREM sleep sees a continued slowing of heartbeat, breathing, muscle activity, and eye movements.
• During this stage, you also experience a reduction in body temperature.
• Throughout the course of the night, you spend about half the time in stage 2 sleep.
• Brain waves generally slow.
• However, this sleep stage is also marked by the appearance of two unique types of brain activity.
Sleep spindles - quick bursts of brain activity. They help with memory and learning, and also
make it harder for you to wake up from noises or disturbances.
K-complexes - sharp spikes followed by a dip in brain activity. They help maintain sleep by
blocking out minor noises and lights. Interestingly, they can also help wake you up if your
brain thinks there's something dangerous. K-complexes are important for memory and
keeping the brain working smoothly
Stage 3
• Your heartbeat, breathing, muscle activity, and brain waves are at their slowest during stage 3 sleep.
This sleep stage is otherwise known as deep sleep.
• Experts believe it to be the most critical stage for regenerating your body and brain. The body
releases growth hormones that help regulate glucose metabolism, immune system functioning,
hormone release, and memory.
• People are less receptive to outside stimuli during deep sleep, so it can be difficult to awaken them.
• If you do manage to wake someone out of deep sleep, they may experience a period of grogginess
called sleep inertia.
Why Is NREM Sleep Important?

NREM has been primarily studied for its contributions to physical recovery and memory
consolidation.
• Researchers have proposed that abnormalities in NREM sleep processes may play a role in
development of schizophrenia, epilepsy, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s disease, and autism
spectrum disorders.
NREM-Related Parasomnias
• The most common NREM-related parasomnias are known as disorders of arousal.
• These parasomnias are characterized by episodes of incomplete awakening and limited
awareness during the episode.
Confusional Arousals - During a confusional arousal, a sleeper acts disoriented and may sit up and
look around but does not leave the bed.
Sleepwalking - occurs when people get out of bed while still asleep but exhibit limited awareness
or responsiveness to their surroundings.
Night Terrors - People who experience night terrors often cry, scream, or make nonsensical sounds
in their sleep and are difficult to awaken. can last a few minutes or up to 40 minutes.
Sexsomnia - Sleep-related sexual abnormal behaviors. This parasomnia is characterized by sexual
behaviors during sleep, such as masturbation, initiation of sexual intercourse, and sexual noises.
Sleep-Related Eating Disorder - Episodes of dysfunctional eating that occur after arousal from
sleep. Most people with this condition exhibit limited responsiveness during their eating episodes
and have little to no memory of the events. - Potential concerns include ingestion of toxic
substances, injuries from cooking or preparing food, and physiological effects of unhealthy or
excessive eating.
Rapid-Eye Movement - a stage of sleep associated with dreaming and memory consolidation.
• You experience your first cycle of REM sleep about 60 to 90 minutes after falling asleep.
• REM sleep, your eyes move rapidly behind your closed eyes, your heart rate speeds up, and
your breathing becomes irregular.
• In contrast to other stages of sleep, your brain is highly active during REM sleep, and your
brain waves become more variable.
• During REM sleep, much of your body operates similarly to how it does when you’re awake,
except your eyes are closed and you experience a temporary loss of muscle tone.
• Researchers hypothesized that this is a protective measure, meant to stop you from acting
out your dreams and injuring yourself.
REM-RELATED
• REM sleep in particular plays an important role in dreaming, memory, emotional processing,
and healthy brain development.
REM Related Parasomnias

Sleep Paralysis - People with sleep paralysis briefly lose the ability to move their body as they are
falling asleep or upon waking.
• This can be paired with hallucinations or feeling suffocated.
• Sleep paralysis is not dangerous, but it can lead to anxiety or distress about falling asleep.
• If you go to bed earlier than usual, it might disrupt your usual sleep pattern.
• This can sometimes lead to a higher likelihood of experiencing sleep paralysis.
Nightmare Disorder - People who experience recurrent vivid nightmares that result in fatigue,
distress, and other daytime impairments may be diagnosed with nightmare disorder. Nightmare
disorder is often seen in people who have post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (RBD): This disorder occurs when the muscle paralysis normally
associated with the REM sleep phase is absent.
• Physical Activity during REM Sleep: Individuals with RBD exhibit high levels of physical activity
during REM sleep, particularly during disturbing dreams.
• Behaviors during RBD Episodes: Behaviors associated with RBD include kicking, punching,
scratching, yelling, and animal-like reactions, which can potentially cause harm to the affected
individual or their sleeping partners.
• Lack of Memory of Behaviors: Despite disruptive behaviors, individuals with RBD have no memory
of these occurrences.
• Association with Neurodegenerative Diseases: RBD is linked to neurodegenerative diseases like
Parkinson's disease, making its presence potentially helpful in diagnosing and treating such
conditions.
• Treatment with Clonazepam: Clonazepam, an anti-anxiety medication with sedative properties, is
commonly used to treat RBD. Melatonin may also be administered in conjunction.
• Modification of Sleeping Environment: As part of treatment, adjustments to the sleeping
environment are often made to ensure safety for those suffering from RBD.
SLEEP APNEA: Sleep apnea involves episodes during which a sleeper's breathing stops, lasting 10–
20 seconds or longer, often accompanied by brief periods of arousal.
• Awareness and Fatigue: Individuals with sleep apnea may not be aware of disruptions but
experience increased fatigue. Partners often notice loud snoring or extended periods without
breathing.
• Prevalence: More common in overweight individuals, associated with loud snoring. Surprisingly, it
may exacerbate cardiovascular disease.
• Diagnosis and Weight: While more common in overweight people, thin individuals who snore loudly
or gasp for air while sleeping should be checked for sleep apnea.
• Consequences: Undiagnosed or untreated sleep apnea can lead to accidents and impact careers due
to lack of sleep, affecting mental alertness and concentration.
• Types of Sleep Apnea
Obstructive sleep apnea (airway blockage)
Central sleep apnea (disrupted brain signals for breathing).
• Treatment – CPAP Device: Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP) device is a common
treatment. It involves a mask connected to a pump that keeps airways open. Effective for mild to
severe cases.
• Challenges with CPAP: Consistent compliance with CPAP devices can be a problem.
• Alternative Treatment: New treatments like Expiratory Positive Air Pressure (EPAP) devices are
being explored as alternatives to address compliance issues.
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS): a condition where an infant stops breathing during sleep
and dies, particularly affecting infants younger than 12 months.
• Risk Factors: Infants under 12 months, especially boys, are at the highest risk. Risk factors include
premature birth, smoking within the home, and hyperthermia.
• Brain Structure and Function: Infants who succumb to SIDS may exhibit differences in both brain
structure and function.
• Preventive Measures:
- Infants should be placed on their backs when sleeping.
- Cribs should be free of suffocation threats like blankets, pillows, or padded crib
bumpers.
- Avoid placing caps on infants' heads to prevent overheating.
- No smoking in the home where the infant resides.
• Impact of Recommendations: Adhering to preventive measures, such as placing infants on their
backs to sleep and creating a safe sleep environment, has contributed to a decrease in the number of
infant deaths from SIDS in recent years.
• Research and Recommendations: Extensive research on SIDS has led to recommendations aimed at
protecting infants during sleep.
Narcolepsy: Inability to Resist Sleep, inlike other sleep disorders, individuals with narcolepsy
cannot resist falling asleep at inappropriate times.
• Association with Cataplexy: Narcoleptic sleep episodes are often linked with cataplexy, involving a
lack of muscle tone or weakness, and in severe cases, complete paralysis similar to REM sleep.
• REM Sleep: Narcoleptic episodes share features with REM sleep, and around one-third of individuals
experience vivid, dream-like hallucinations during attacks.
• Triggers and Duration: Episodes are often triggered by heightened arousal or stress and can last
from a minute to half an hour. Individuals report feeling refreshed after awakening from a narcoleptic
attack.
• Interference with Daily Life: Regular narcoleptic episodes can interfere with daily activities, posing
risks in situations requiring alertness (e.g., driving, operating machinery).
• Treatment with Psychomotor Stimulants: Narcolepsy is generally treated with psychomotor
stimulant drugs, such as amphetamines, to promote increased neural activity.
• Hypocretin System: Narcolepsy is associated with reduced levels of hypocretin in the brain. Future
medications may target the hypocretin system.
• Variability in Symptoms and Treatment: There is significant variability among individuals in how
narcolepsy symptoms manifest and the effectiveness of available treatments.
• Case Study Example: A case study highlights a 50-year-old woman with narcolepsy who experienced
excessive sleepiness at inappropriate times. Treatment involved a combination of a stimulant drug
and an antidepressant, leading to significant improvement.

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MEMORY

• Memory is an information processing system; therefore, we often compare it to a computer.

AUTOMATIC PROCESSING EFFORTFULL PROCESSING

THREE TYPES OF ENCONDING

VISUAL - is the encoding of images.

ACOUSTIC – is the encoding of sounds.

THREE STAGES OF MEMORY STORAGE

SHORT-TERM - is a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory;

TWO TYPES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY

Memory and Amnesia

MEMORY CONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION

Controversies over Repressed and Recovered Memories.

• TRANSIENCE - which means

TWO TYPES OF INTERFERENCE

How to Enhance Memorization to Study Effectively?

CONSCIOUSNESS is a multifaceted concept that every human being undergoes on a regular

Sigmund Freud, as represented by

Conscious mind – composed of the

(Pugosa, Baquiran, Bernardino, Cervantes, Dela Cruz, Meier, Ong,Tapang) 1

○ It can be triggered and acted out unconsciously; and

Suppression – As contrasting to repression done by the unconscious mind,

There are also different states of consciousness characterized by the difference of

(Pugosa, Baquiran, Bernardino, Cervantes, Dela Cruz, Meier, Ong,Tapang) 2

A distinct example of biological rhythms is a complete menstrual cycle, which averages to

Circadian Rhythm Length Variations - Early Birds and Night Owls

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) – is where the biological clock is found, it works

PROBLEMS WITH CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS

(Pugosa, Baquiran, Bernardino, Cervantes, Dela Cruz, Meier, Ong,Tapang) 4

SLEEP NEEDS AT DIFFERENT AGES

- According to Singh & Suni

(Pugosa, Baquiran, Bernardino, Cervantes, Dela Cruz, Meier, Ong,Tapang) 5

A. Adaptive function of sleep

B. Cognitive function of sleep

(Pugosa, Baquiran, Bernardino, Cervantes, Dela Cruz, Meier, Ong,Tapang) 6

○ Slow-wave sleep following the acquisition of new information can enhance

DIFFERENT BRAIN WAVES THAT OCCUR DURING SLEEP

Before we categorize and differentiate the stages of

THE STAGES OF SLEEP

1. Stage 1: NREM Sleep

(Pugosa, Baquiran, Bernardino, Cervantes, Dela Cruz, Meier, Ong,Tapang) 7

2. Stage 2: NREM Sleep

3. Stage 3: NREM Sleep

4. Stage 4: REM Sleep

(Pugosa, Baquiran, Bernardino, Cervantes, Dela Cruz, Meier, Ong,Tapang) 8

Two Types of Dream Contents

A. Manifest content – the actual content, or storyline, of a dream

B. Latent content – refers to the hidden meaning of a dream.

SLEEP PROBLEMS AND DISORDERS

1. Insomnia – Is characterized by difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or experiencing

● REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (RBD)

● Restless Leg Syndrome

3. Sleep Apnea – Involves repeated interruptions in breathing during sleep, leading to

(Pugosa, Baquiran, Bernardino, Cervantes, Dela Cruz, Meier, Ong,Tapang) 10

5. Hypersomnia – involves excessive daytime sleepiness, making it difficult to stay awake

6. Narcolepsy – Is a neurological disorder that causes sudden, uncontrollable episodes of

7. Circadian Rhythm Disorders

(Pugosa, Baquiran, Bernardino, Cervantes, Dela Cruz, Meier, Ong,Tapang) 11

Altering Consciousness through Drugs