Looking Back

Recall that trees release oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis. And you need oxygen to breathe. Do you know
why? So your cells can perform cellular respiration and make ATP. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are connected
through an important relationship. This relationship enables life to survive as we know it. The products of one process are
the reactants of the other. Notice that the equation for cellular respiration is the direct opposite of photosynthesis:
Cellular Respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6+ 6O2

Photosynthesis makes the glucose that is used in

cellular respiration to make ATP. The glucose is then turned
back into carbon dioxide, which is used in photosynthesis.
While water is broken down to form oxygen during
photosynthesis, in cellular respiration oxygen is combined
with hydrogen to form water. While photosynthesis requires
carbon dioxide and releases oxygen, cellular respiration
requires oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. It is the released
oxygen that is used by us and most other organisms for
cellular respiration. We breathe in that oxygen, which is
carried through our blood to all our cells. In our cells, oxygen
allows cellular respiration to proceed. Cellular respiration
works best in the presence of oxygen. Without oxygen, much
less ATP would be produced.

Cellular respiration and photosynthesis are important

parts of the carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is the pathways
through which carbon is recycled in the biosphere. While
cellular respiration releases carbon dioxide into the
environment, photosynthesis pulls carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere. The exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen
during photosynthesis and cellular respiration worldwide helps to keep atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxide at stable
levels.

Brief Introduction
Biomolecule, also called biological molecule, is any of numerous substances that are produced by cells and living
organisms. Biomolecules have a wide range of sizes and structures and perform a vast array of functions. The four major
types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and proteins. They are important for the survival of living
cells. Some of valuable biomolecules have huge demand, which cannot be fulfilled from their renewable resources.
Without any of these four molecules, a cell and organism would not be able to live. All of the four molecules of life are
important either structurally or functionally for cells and, in most cases, they are important in both ways.

Biomolecules are considered “macromolecules” since they are big chunks of molecules. These macromolecules
have small building blocks called “monomers”. Monomers are small molecules, mostly organic, that can join with other
similar molecules to form very large molecules. Each biomolecule has its own monomers and type of bond that binds
them.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the most abundant class of organic compounds found in living organisms. They originate as
products of photosynthesis, an endothermic reductive condensation of carbon dioxide requiring light energy and the
pigment chlorophyll.

nCO2 + nH2O + Energy → CnH2nOn + nO2

As noted here, the formulas of many

carbohydrates can be written as carbon
hydrates, Cn(H2O)n, hence their name. The
carbohydrates are a major source of
metabolic energy, both for plants and for
animals that depend on plants for food. Aside
from the sugars and starches that meet this
vital nutritional role, carbohydrates also serve
as a structural material (cellulose), a
component of the energy transport
compound ATP/ADP, recognition sites on cell
surfaces, and one of three essential
components of DNA and RNA.

Carbohydrates are called saccharides or, if they are relatively

small, sugars. Aside from classifying them based on the number of monomer
(saccharide) contained, we can also classify them based on the number of
elements involved in their ring. For example, glucose is a hexose – a sugar
having 6 elements in its ring while fructose is a pentose – a sugar having 5
elements in its ring.

Monosaccharides are linked together by glycosidic bonds to form disaccharides or polysaccharides. The process
of forming disaccharides or polysaccharides from monosaccharides is called dehydration (also called condensation
process) because to form a bond, molecule/s of water is removed from the monosaccharides. On the other hand,
degrading of polysaccharides and disaccharides to form monosaccharides, requires adding water molecule to break the
bond. This is called hydrolysis process.
Role of Glucose in Cellular Respiration
Glycolysis is the first step in the breakdown of glucose to
extract energy for cellular metabolism. Glycolysis consists of
an energy-requiring phase followed by an energy-releasing
phase. Glycolysis is a series of reactions that extract energy
from glucose by splitting it into two three-carbon molecules
called pyruvates. Glycolysis is an ancient metabolic pathway,
meaning that it evolved long ago, and it is found in the great
majority of organisms alive today. In organisms that perform
cellular respiration, glycolysis is the first stage of this process.
However, glycolysis doesn’t require oxygen, and many
anaerobic organisms—organisms that do not use oxygen—
also have this pathway.

Overall, glycolysis converts one six-carbon molecule of

glucose into two three-carbon molecules of pyruvate. The
net products of this process are two molecules of ATP and
two molecules of NADH. This is needed in another process
called Kreb’s Cycle.

On the other hand, Gluconeogenesis is the metabolic

process by which organisms produce sugars (namely
glucose) for catabolic reactions from non-carbohydrate
precursors. Glucose is the only energy source used by the
brain (with the exception of ketone bodies during times of
fasting), testes, erythrocytes, and kidney medulla.

Gluconeogenesis provides glucose when dietary intake is insufficient to supply the requirements of the brain and
nervous system, erythrocytes, renal medulla, testes, and embryonic tissues, all of which use glucose as a major source of
fuel. Even if you're in ketosis, gluconeogenesis is still occurring. The anabolic action of insulin is antagonized by the
catabolic action of glucagon. This hormone stimulates glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.

Glycogenolysis is the process by which glycogen, the

primary carbohydrate stored in the liver and muscle cells of
animals, is broken down into glucose to provide immediate
energy and to maintain blood glucose levels during fasting.
Glycogenolysis occurs primarily in the liver and is stimulated by
the hormones glucagon and epinephrine (adrenaline).
Glycogenolysis is regulated hormonally in response to blood
sugar levels by glucagon and insulin, and stimulated by
epinephrine during the fight-or-flight response. Insulin potently
inhibits glycogenolysis.

The main difference between glycogenolysis and

gluconeogenesis is that glycogenolysis involves the formation
of glucose molecules from a glucose source (glycogen), while
gluconeogenesis forms glucose from non-glucose sources,
molecules that are not made up of glucose.
 Type 2 diabetes is primarily the result of two interrelated problems: Cells in muscle, fat and the liver become
resistant to insulin. Because these cells don't interact in a normal way with insulin, they don't take in enough sugar. The
pancreas is unable to produce enough insulin to manage blood sugar levels.

Proteins
Proteins, from the Greek proteios, meaning first, are a class of organic compounds which are present in and vital
to every living cell. In the form of skin, hair, callus, cartilage, muscles, tendons and ligaments, proteins hold together,
protect, and provide structure to the body of a multi-celled organism. In the form of enzymes, hormones, antibodies, and
globulins, they catalyze, regulate, and protect the body chemistry. In the form of hemoglobin, myoglobin and various
lipoproteins, they effect the transport of oxygen and other substances within an organism.

The general formula of proteins is RCH(NH2)COOH. The monomer of proteins are amino acids. Proteins are
commonly called body-building molecules because they serve as major structural components of living things too. They
are made up of the elements Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen.

Amino acids are exactly what they say they are! They are compounds containing an amino group, -NH2, and a
carboxylic acid group, -COOH. The biologically important amino acids have the amino group attached to the carbon atom
next door to the -COOH group. Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds to form proteins.

ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS

Vitamins: Vital Amines

Vitamins are organic compounds that people need in small quantities. As the name suggests, they contain amine
groups. Most vitamins need to come from food because the body either does not produce them or produces very little.
Each organism has different vitamin requirements. For example, humans need to get vitamin C from their diets — while
dogs can produce all the vitamin C that they need. For humans, vitamin D is not available in large enough quantities in
food. The human body synthesizes the vitamin when exposed to sunlight, and this is the best source of vitamin D.

Vitamins can also be classified as fat soluble or water soluble. Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble. The body
stores fat-soluble vitamins in fatty tissue and the liver, and reserves of these vitamins can stay in the body for days and
sometimes months. Dietary fats help the body absorb fat-soluble vitamins through the intestinal tract.

Water-soluble vitamins do not stay in the body for long and cannot be stored. They leave the body via the urine.
Because of this, people need a more regular supply of water-soluble vitamins than fat-soluble ones. Vitamin C and all the
B vitamins are water-soluble.

Vitamins – Chemical name, Functions and Effect to the Body

Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are naturally occurring chemical compounds that serve as the primary information-carrying
molecules in cells. They play an especially important role in directing protein synthesis. The two main classes of nucleic
acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). The monomer of nucleic acids are nucleotides bonded
together by phosphodiester bonds.

Nucleic acids are long chainlike molecules composed of a series of

nearly identical building blocks called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists
of a nitrogen-containing aromatic base attached to a pentose (five-carbon)
sugar, which is in turn attached to a phosphate group.

DNA is the
genetic material found in
living organisms, all the
way from single-celled bacteria to multicellular mammals like you and
me. Some viruses use RNA, not DNA, as their genetic material, but aren’t
technically considered to be alive (since they cannot reproduce without
help from a host). DNA and RNA are polymers (in the case of DNA, often
very long polymers), and are made up of monomers known as
nucleotides. In molecular biology shorthand, the nitrogenous bases are often just referred to by their one-letter symbols,
A, T, G, C, and U. DNA contains A, T, G, and C, while RNA contains A, U, G, and C (that is, U is swapped in for T).

Lipids
The monomer of lipids are fatty acids. Their chemical formula is expressed as CH3(CH2)nCOOH. They are commonly
called stored-energy molecules. They store more energy than carbohydrates and protein. They insulate nerve cells and
form cell membranes. They are made up of the elements Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen.

Fats and lipids are an essential component of the homeostatic function of the human body. Lipids contribute to
some of the body's most vital processes. Lipids are fatty, waxy, or oily compounds that are soluble in organic solvents and
insoluble in polar solvents such as water. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids.
FATS
A fat molecule consists of two main components—glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol is an organic compound
(alcohol) with three carbons, five hydrogens, and three hydroxyl (OH) groups. Fatty acids have a long chain of
hydrocarbons to which a carboxyl group is attached, hence the name “fatty acid.”

During this ester bond formation, three water molecules are released. The three fatty acids in the triacylglycerol
may be similar or dissimilar. Fats are also called triacylglycerols or triglycerides because of their chemical structure. Some
fatty acids have common names that specify their origin. For example, palmitic acid, a saturated fatty acid, is derived from
the palm tree.

WAX
Wax covers the feathers of some aquatic birds and the leaf surfaces of some plants. Because of the hydrophobic
nature of waxes, they prevent water from sticking on the surface. Waxes are made up of long fatty acid chains esterified
to long-chain alcohols.

PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Phospholipids are major constituents of the plasma membrane, the outermost layer of animal cells. Like fats,
they are composed of fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol or sphingosine backbone. Instead of three fatty acids
attached as in triglycerides, however, there are two fatty acids forming diacylglycerol, and the third carbon of the
glycerol backbone is occupied by a modified phosphate group.

STEROLS
Unlike the phospholipids and fats discussed earlier, steroids have a fused ring structure. Although they do not
resemble the other lipids, they are grouped with them because they are also hydrophobic and insoluble in water. All
steroids have four linked carbon rings and several of them, like cholesterol, have a short tail. Many steroids also have
the –OH functional group, which puts them in the alcohol classification (thus the name - sterols).

Cholesterol is the most common steroid. Cholesterol is mainly synthesized in the liver and is the precursor to many
steroid hormones such as testosterone and estradiol, which are secreted by the gonads and endocrine glands. It is also
the precursor to Vitamin D. Cholesterol is also the precursor of bile salts, which help in the emulsification of fats and their
subsequent absorption by cells. Although cholesterol is often spoken of in negative terms by lay people, it is necessary for
proper functioning of the body. It is a component of the plasma membrane of animal cells and is found within the
phospholipid bilayer. Being the outermost structure in animal cells, the plasma membrane is responsible for the transport
of materials and cellular recognition and it is involved in cell-to-cell communication.

Cholesterol is a type of blood fat, and blood fats are known as lipids. Cholesterol and other lipids are carried in
the blood attached to proteins, forming tiny spheres, or "parcels" known as lipoproteins.

HOW THE BODY REGULATES CHOLESTEROL AND OTHER LIPOPROTEINS

BAD FAT: TRANS FAT

In the food industry, oils are artificially hydrogenated to make them semi-solid and of a consistency desirable for
many processed food products. Simply speaking, hydrogen gas is bubbled through oils to solidify them. During this
hydrogenation process, double bonds of the cis– conformation in the hydrocarbon chain may be converted to double
bonds in the trans– conformation.

Margarine, some types of peanut butter, and shortening are examples of artificially hydrogenated trans fats.
Recent studies have shown that an increase in trans fats in the human diet may lead to an increase in levels of low-density
lipoproteins (LDL), or “bad” cholesterol, which in turn may lead to plaque deposition in the arteries, resulting in heart
disease. Many fast food restaurants have recently banned the use of trans fats, and food labels are required to display the
trans-fat content.
GOOD FAT: OMEGA 3
Essential fatty acids are fatty acids required but not synthesized by the human body. Consequently, they have to
be supplemented through ingestion via the diet. Omega-3 fatty acids fall into this category and are one of only two known
for humans (the other being omega-6 fatty acid). These are polyunsaturated fatty acids and are called omega-3 because
the third carbon from the end of the hydrocarbon chain is connected to its neighboring carbon by a double bond.

The farthest carbon away from the carboxyl group is numbered as the omega (ω) carbon, and if the double bond
is between the third and fourth carbon from that end, it is known as an omega-3 fatty acid. Nutritionally important because
the body does not make them, omega-3 fatty acids include alpha-linoleic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), all of which are polyunsaturated. Salmon, trout, and tuna are good sources of omega-3 fatty
acids. Research indicates that omega-3 fatty acids reduce the risk of sudden death from heart attacks, reduce triglycerides
in the blood, lower blood pressure, and prevent thrombosis by inhibiting blood clotting. They also reduce inflammation,
and may help reduce the risk of some cancers in animals.

Like carbohydrates, fats have received a lot of bad publicity. It is true that eating an excess of fried foods and other
“fatty” foods leads to weight gain. However, fats do have important functions. Many vitamins are fat soluble, and fats
serve as a long-term storage form of fatty acids: a source of energy. They also provide insulation for the body. Therefore,
“healthy” fats in moderate amounts should be consumed on a regular basis.

Food Tests
Indicators are chemicals that change color when chemical conditions change, such as pH, or when a chemical
reaction takes place producing a colored molecule. There are many biochemical procedures that can be used to detect
the presence of important molecules.

Biuret test is a chemical test used to determine the presence of a peptide bond (chemical bond between amino
acids) in a substance. The test yields a negative result if the Biuret reagent remains blue, and it yields a positive result if
the reagent changes from blue to purple.

The Iodine Test for Starch is used to determine the presence of starch in materials. A positive result for the iodine
test (starch is present) was a color change ranging from violet to black; a negative result (no starch) was the yellow color
(no change) of the iodine solution.

Benedict’s Test is used to test for simple carbohydrates. (monosaccharides and some disaccharides), which have
free ketone or aldehyde functional groups.

•If the color upon boiling is changed into green, then there would be 0.1 to 0.5 percent sugar in solution.

•If it changes color to yellow, then 0.5 to 1 percent sugar is present.

•If it changes to orange, then it means that 1 to 1.5 percent sugar is present.

•If color changes to red, then 1.5 to 2.0 percent sugar is present.

•And if color changes to brick red, it means that more than 2 percent sugar is present in solution.

The Ethanol Emulsion Test is a food test which determines the presence of lipids. In this procedure, ethanol is
added to the sample. Lipids are not present in the substance remains colorless and no emulsion is formed. Lipids are
present in the substance, however, if a layer of cloudy white suspension forms above the solution.
“An investment in knowledge pays the best interest” – Benjamin Franklin