Veterinary Nursing Journal

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Reproductive system of the dog and cat – Part 3.

Reproductive physiology of the bitch

Victoria Aspinall

To cite this article: Victoria Aspinall (2011) Reproductive system of the dog and cat – Part 3.
Reproductive physiology of the bitch, Veterinary Nursing Journal, 26:5, 153-157, DOI: 10.1111/
j.2045-0648.2010.00042.x

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2045-0648.2010.00042.x

Published online: 21 Nov 2014.

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 CLINICAL

Vidoria Aspinall BVSc MRCVS
Victoria qualified from Bristol
University vet school and went
into small animal practice. After
raising her four children she
taught at Hartpury College, where
she started the veterinary nursing
department. She subsequently
founded Abbeydale Vetlink
Veterinary Training which is a
VNAC in the west of England.
Victoria is an associate lecturer in
veterinary nursing at Bridgwater
College, Somerset. She has
written and edited many books
for vet nurses.
Reproductive system of
the dog and cat- Part 3.
Reproductive physiology
of the bitch
Victoria Aspinall. Bvsc MRcvs
Bridgwater College, Bath Road, Bridgwater, Somerset TA6 4PZ. UK
ABSTRACT: In order for a female animal to reproduce her species, she must first
advertise her willingness to mate to the male animal, conceive and finally deliver
healthy offspring. All of these processes involve the coordination of behaviour
patterns and physical changes within the ovary and the reproductive tract which
are controlled by the reproductive hormones. This article describes the oestrous
cycle of the bitch, the process of ovulation and the complex controlling inter-
relationship between the four hormones secreted by the ovaries and by the
pituitary glands.
Introduction 3. The uterine horns and uterine body
thicken and become more glandular
In a recent article, we studied the 4. Behaviour of the animal that
anatomy of the reproductive tract of the 'advertises' to the male that the female
bitch (Canis familiaris) and now it is time is in a sexually receptive state.
to understand the complex physiology
involved in reproduction. When describing The pattern and signs of the cycle vary
this physiology it is important to realise according to the species in terms of the
that female mammals have much in individual phases and their lengths - the
common but the aim of this article is to oestrous cycles of the bitch and the queen
focus particularly on the bitch. are quite different.

To cite this article use either
DOl: 10.1111/j.2045-0648.2010.00042.x or
Veterinary Nursing Journal Vol26 pp153-157
The most significant part of the female
tract is the ovary, the function of which
is (i) to produce ova that, when fertilised,
will become the embryos, and (ii) to
secrete the reproductive hormones
oestrogen and progesterone which
control the oestrous cycle. The remains
of the tract undergo hormonally-induced
changes in preparation for the
implantation of the embryos and for
their development into viable foetuses.
Oestrous cycle
This may be defined as 'the cycle of
events that occur in all post-pubertal
non-pregnant female animals involving
regular limited periods of sexual
receptivity: It involves simultaneous
events in several parts of the reproductive
tract, controlled by a series of complex
hormonal pathways. These events
(Table 1) occur in:
1. The ovary - see ovulation
2. The endocrine system - see hormonal
control
The average bitch reaches sexual maturity
at about six to nine months of age,
although this varies with the size and
breed of the dog - larger breeds mature
much later. Sexual maturity is marked by
the onset of the first oestrous cycle.
Bitches commonly have an oestrous cycle
every six months and are then described
as being 'in season. The bitch is said to be
monoestrous which means that during
each period of ovarian activity there is one
period when she will accept the male - this
is known as oestrus. There is no
recognised breeding season - bitches may
come into 'season' at any time of year.
The bitch is described as being a
spontaneous ovulator - she will usually
ovulate on day 10 of the complete cycle
whether or not she is mated. Other
spontaneous ovulators include the
horse, sheep and human being.
The stages of the cycle related to the bitch's
behaviour and to changes within the ovary IJ

© 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Veterinary Nu!Sing Journal• VOL 26 • May 2011 • Page 153
CLINICAL
and reproductive tract are summarised in ~ Figure 1: Phases of the oestrous cycle of the bitch [Reproduced with permission from
Table 1 and illustrated in Figure 1. Aspinall. V. & Cappello, M. [2009]1ntroduction to Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology.
Butterworth Heinemann. Oxford. p132]
The total length of time that a bitch
shows overt signs of her season is
Day 10 • ovulation
about four weeks, but within the ovary
there will be histological evidence, viz.
a visible corpus luteum for about another
three months.
• PnHMM~trua 0
approx 9 days }
'on heat' or 'In season'
D Oestrus • approx. 9 days
In the period between cycles there is a
0 Metoestrus I· approx. 20 days
long, and sometimes variable, anoestrus
D Metoestrus II • approx. 70 days
during which there is no discernable
D Anoestrus wide variation
0

ovarian activity. Towards the end, new

follicles begin to develop in the ovary and
secrete oestrogen. When blood levels
have risen sufficiently they will initiate
the external signs of pro-oestrous and the
cycle begins again (Figure 1).

TABLE 1 Summary of events that occur within the oestrous cycle of the bitch
Phase of the External and Hormones Events in the ovary Changes in the
oestrous cycle behavioural signs reproductive tract
Pro-oestrus - approx Enlarged vulva, blood- Oestrogen Primary follicles Vagina thickens and
9 days stained vaginal discharge, secreted by the begin to develop into becomes moist.
increased frequency of Graafian follicles mature Graafian Increase in red blood
urination. Flirty excitable follicles. cells which stain the
behaviour, may attempt to vaginal discharges
escape from 'captivity'.
Will NOT allow mating
Oestrus - approx Enlarged vulva, discharge Oestrogen levels Mature follicles Vagina is moist and
9 days becomes straw coloured. fall. Rising levels ovulate on Day 10 thickened, number of
Flirty excitable, playful. of LH causes of the cycle [1st or red blood cells reduce.
Will stand still and allow ovulation and 2nd day of oestrus! Towards the end of
mating. progesterone is and ova pass down the phase the
secreted by the the oviduct. endometrium of the
luteinized corpus Remaining follicular uterus begins to
luteum. tissue becomes thicken.
luteinized to form
corpus luteum.
Met-oestrus I - Vulva begins to shrink, Progesterone Corpus luteum Endometrium becomes
approx 20 days discharge dries up. levels remain high. remains in the ovary thicker and more
Behaviour gradually for the entire phase. glandular ready to
returns to normal. receive the fertilised
ova.
Met-oestrus II - Appearance and behaviour Progesterone Corpus luteum Endometrium is
approx 70 days are that of the normal bitch. levels remain high remains until a few thickened, mammary
until the corpus days before the end glands enlarge
luteum regresses of this phase. slightly. If bitch is not
towards the end pregnant there is a
of the cycle. gradual return to
normal.
Anoestrus - approx Appearance and behaviour Levels of all No activity until a few Reproductive tract is
3-9 months are that of the normal bitch. hormones are very days before the normal.
low. Towards the expected start of the
end of anoestrus next cycle when a few
the levels of FSH primary follicles start
rise, follicles begin to develop.
to form and levels
of oestrogen start
to rise.

Page 154 o V0l26 o May 2011 o Veterinary Nursing Journal © 2011 Blackwell Publishing ltd
 CLINICAL

Ovulation ~ Figure 2: Graph shows the relationship between the levels of reproductive hormones
during the oestrous cycle of the bitch
This is the process of releasing the mature
ova from the ovary, which consists of a
Oestrogen
framework of connective tissue, blood - - - - - Luteinizing hormone
capillaries and germ cells. At birth the ••••· · · · ••· · · · Progesterone
ovary contains all the germ cells that will Ovulation
be needed during the animal's reproductive
life and these act as a reservoir from which
the follicles develop. Many of these germ
cells will eventually atrophy and disappear.

At puberty, at the beginning of the first

oestrous cycle, some of the germ cells
begin to develop into primary follicles.
In litter-bearing or multiparous animals,
such as the dog, there will be many
follicles in each ovary.

As the cycle continues, the follicles 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Days after the beginning of pro-oestrus
mature into Graafian follicles, each of
which consists of an outer double layer of
cells surrounding a fluid-filled cavity
which contains an ovum whose nucleus If the animal is mated and becomes In the non-pregnant bitch, the corpus
contains the haploid (half the normal pregnant, the corpus luteum remains luteum of the cycle remains in the ovary
number) of chromosomes. The Graafian in the ovary for almost the entire for almost as long as it does in pregnancy,
follicles secrete oestrogen. gestation period and continues to so levels of progesterone remain high -
secrete progesterone, which is this is the reason why some bitches develop
Towards the end of pro-oestrus - and at largely responsible for maintaining the symptoms of a false pregnancy (also
the start of oestrus - the follicles reach the pregnancy. called pseudopregnancy or pseudocyesis).C
full size and rupture releasing the ova,
which pass down the oviduct where they
may or may not be fertilised by sperm
from the male. Ovulation usually occurs
' ' An holistic
around day 10 of the cycle (Table 1) and
approach is becoming
is a result of rising levels of luteinizing
hormone (LH) (Figure 2). more widely used in
small animal practice.
After ovulation, the follicular tissue
Grooming or massage
remaining in the ovary goes through
several stages: treatment could be one
1. There may be a little bleeding into way of extending this
the centre of the follicle which
practice to equine
produces a transient stage known
as the corpus haemorrhagicum. patients as massage
2. The blood is resorbed and the and tactile contact is
follicular tissue then becomes
commonly used to
organised to form the corpus luteum.
This secretes progesterone and the reassure and relieve
reproductive tract remains under its stress in both humans
influence for the remaining stages
of the oestrous cycle. The corpus and small animals. ' '
luteum gradually regresses as new
follicles develop at the start of the
next oestrous cycle.
3. When the corpus luteum has regressed,
it is replaced by a small white scar
known as the corpus albicans. It is
possible, when examining the ovary
microscopically, to detect how many
ova have been released during the
individual's reproductive life.

© 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Veterinary Nursing Joumal• VOL 26 • May 2011 • Page 155
CLINICAl

TABlE 2 Hormones involved in the control of the reproductive cycle

Hormone Source Action
Gonadotrophin releasing Hypothalamus deep within the forebrain. Produced in response to external
hormone [GRHI factors. Stimulates the secretion of
gonadotrophins from the anterior
pituitary gland.
Follicle stimulating hormone [FSHI Anterior pituitary gland on the ventral Stimulates the germ cells in the
surface of the brain. ovary to become mature follicles
Luteinizing hormone [ LHI Anterior pituitary gland on the ventral Acts on the mature follicles. Causes
surface of the brain them to ovulate and the remaining
tissue to become corpora lutea.
Oestrogen Graafian follicle within the ovary. Produces the signs of pro-oestrus,
i.e. prepares the reproductive tract
for coitus and stimulates the
behavioural patterns of an animal
"in season·.
Progesterone Corpus luteum within the ovary. Prepares the reproductive tract for
pregnancy. Causes the mammary
glands to enlarge prior to lactation.
Maintains the pregnancy and
causes the uterine muscle to
remain quiescent, i.e. non-reactive.

Hormonal control ~ Figure 3: Inter-relationships between the female reproductive hormones.

!Reproduced with permission from Aspinall, V. & Cappello, M. (2009]1ntroduction
to Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology. Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford. p75]
There are several hormones (Table 2)
involved in a complex interaction

,,,
(Figure 3) that brings about the phases External factors,
of the oestrous cycle (Table 1). e.g. day length, temperature, pheromones
1. At puberty or at the start of the
breeding season various external stimuli,
such as day length, environmental
temperature and the presence of the
Hypothalamus I•---------
male are perceived by receptors within 1 Gonadotrophin
l releasing hormone
the eyes, ears and nose and stimulate
the hypothalamus within the forebrain.
2. The hypothalamus secretes
--c-• Anterior pituitary gland

Positive
gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GRH)
feedback
and the oestrous cycle begins. GRH is ~
u
~
u
carried by the blood to the anterior Ill
.a Follicle Luteinising Ill
-a .a
stimulating hormone -a
pituitary gland which then secretes
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH).
3. FSH stimulates the germ cells within
-Gl
Gl
Gl
>
:;;
hormone IFSH) (LH)

Ovary
Gl
.!
Gl
>
:;;
Ill Ill
the ovary and some develop into ripe en en
Graafian follicles which secrete oestrogen. z
Gl
/Corpus
Follicle
' luteum Gl
z
4. Oestrogen prepares the reproductive
tract for coitus by causing the lining to
become thickened and more glandular,
mucus production increases, the vulva ·--------- Oestrogen Progesterone -------
of the bitch enlarges and there is also a
blood-stained vaginal discharge.
Oestrogen also inhibits further
production of FSH and stimulates the follicular tissue luteinizes, a corpus 8. Progesterone prepares the
secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) luteum forms and begins to secrete reproductive tract to receive the
from the anterior pituitary gland. progesterone. fertilised ova by causing the uterine
5. LH acts on the follicles and some of 7. Falling levels of oestrogen and rising walls to become thickened and more
the more mature cells luteinize and levels of LH and progesterone produce glandular, and the mammary glands
begin to secrete progesterone. the behavioural signs of early oestrus enlarge in preparation for the
6. Eventually each follicle ruptures and and make the female stand still and production of milk. Progesterone also
an ovum is released. The remaining allow mating by the male (Figure 2). inhibits the secretion of GRH, thus

Page 156 • VOL16 • May 1011 • Veterinary Nursing Journal © 1011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

preventing the formation of more
follicles and helping to maintain the
pregnant state.
9. If the animal is not pregnant, the
corpora lutea regress, the inhibition of
GRH is lifted, and the oestrous cycle
begins again.
So to summarize, the oestrous cycle
of the bitch results from a complicated
inter-relationship between the ovary, the
uterine tract and the behaviour of the
bitch. These occurrences are brought
about and controlled by changes within
the endocrine system. What makes it
even more difficult to understand - and
to describe - is that everything happens
at once! ll
Bibliography
ALLEN, W. EDWARD 11992) Fertility and Obstetrics
in the Dog. Blackwell Scientific Publications. Oxford.
ASPINALL, V. 12006) The Complete Textbook of
Veterinary Nursing. Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford.
ASPINALL, V. and CAPPELLO. M. l2009)1ntroduction
to Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology 2nd ed.
Butterworth Heinemann. Oxford.
LANE. D.. COOPER, B. and TURNER. L. 12007) BSAVA
Textbook of Veterinary Nursing. 4th edition. BSAVA.
Gloucester.
COMPANY NEWS
Veterinary Poisons Information
Service
Vets Now. in co-operation with its
host practices, has announced a new
partnership with the Veterinary
Poisons Information Service [VPIS) to
launch a 'Tax Box· service that gives
veterinary practices 24-hour direct
access to the treatments that they are
most likely to need - and least likely to
stock, such as Adder anti-venom - in a
poisoning emergency.
The firm claims that this new service.
taken in conjunction with the case-
specific advice offered by VPIS,
represents a significant step forward in
the ease and availability of care for the
intoxicated patient. Through Tax Box.
any vet calling the VPIS advice line will
be able to access the drugs required in
a poisoning emergency at selected
Vets Now clinics and their host
practices across the UK.
Vets tend not to stock some toxicity
treatments as a matter of course; and
© 2011 Blackwell Publishing ltd
These multiple choice questions are based on the above text. Answers appear
on page 175.
1. Which of the following is not part of the oestrous
cycle?
a. production of ova from the ovary
b. behavioural patterns advertising willingness
to mate
c. development of the placenta and foetal
membranes
d.preparation of the uterus to receive fertilised
ova.
2. The bitch may be described as:
a.an induced ovulator and monoestrous
b.a spontaneous ovulator and monoestrous
c. an induced ovulator and polyoestrous
d.a spontaneous ovulator and polyoestrous
3. Oestrus is defined as the period of the oestrous
cycle:
a. in which the tract is dominated by oestrogen
b.during which the bitch will allow mating by the
dog
c. in which the tract is dominated by progesterone
d.in which there is no ovarian activity
4. Ovulation occurs on which day of the cycle?
a.l
b.4
c.10
d.19
5. Pseudocyesis is...
a.false pregnancy
b. hypocalcaemia
c. false tears
d.pregnancy
while previously VPIS was only able to
advise vets on diagnosis and appropriate
treatment, through the new enhanced
service they can now also direct vets to
the nearest Vets Now clinic where the
treatment can be sourced, at cost,
straight away.
The Tax Box service has been effective
since 31st March and it is open to all
veterinary practices across the country.
Vets can telephone VPIS at any time, day
or night, on 020 7188 0200 for advice and
access to appropriate drugs. ll
CLINICAL
6. The ripe Graafian follicle ...
a. ruptures as a result of the secretion of FSH
b. ruptures, secretes progesterone and forms the
corpus luteum
c. secretes oestrogen, ruptures and then forms the
corpus luteum
d.is present in the ovary at the same time as a
false pregnancy occurs.
7. Which two hormones are produced by the anterior
pituitary gland and have adirect effect on the
ovary?
a.FSH and LH
b.FSH and progesterone
c. LH and progesterone
d. Oestrogen and progesterone
8. External factors stimulate which structure in the
body to begin the oestrous cycle?
a. ovary
b. pituitary gland
c. hypothalamus
d.testis
9. Which of the following signs is not acharacteristic
of the bitch in pro-oestrus?
a.Straw coloured discharge
b. Enlarged vulva
c. Playful flirty behaviour
d. Blood-stained discharge
10. Which of the following statements is false?
a. During anoestrus there are no external signs and
no internal signs of ovarian activity
b. The bitch is an induced ovulator and must be
mated to ovulate
c. The bitch comes into season approximately
every 6 months
d.Oestrogen causes the behaviour associated with
pro-oestrus.
Support dogs
The first-ever Gala Day for Support
Dogs will be held on Sunday 3rd July at
Hillsborough Park, Sheffield. It will be
a fun-filled day for all the family with
agility displays, craft stalls. cake stalls,
food stalls, bouncy castle, face painting
and competitions running throughout
the day.
More information nearer the time will
be available on the website.
www.support-dogs.org.uk or contact
supportdogsrabtinternet.com ll
Veleflnary Nursing Journal• VOL26 • May 2011 • Page 157

19. CORLETT, J. {2000) The perceptions of nurse
teachers, student nurses and preceptors of the
theory-practice gap in nurse education. Nurse
Education Today 20161: 499-505.
20. Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons l2009b)ln
the frame: VN awards review. VN Standard. Aug: 3.
Further reading
Royal College of Nursing {2007) Guidance for
mentors of nursing students and midwives An RCN
toolkit. London.
RCN.http://www.rcn.org.uk/_data/assets/pdf_file/00
08/786 77/002797 .pdf
COMPANY CPO
Company launches 'cardio academy'
Ceva Animal Health has launched
·Cardia Academy', which it claims to
be the first international cardiology e-
learning programme, featuring CPO
from leading international specialists.
Veterinary professionals can access
the CPO on the website,
www.cardioacademy.cevalearn.com
and new sessions will be added every
month, covering a wide range of
cardiology topics. Each session lasts
around 30 minutes and involves an
interactive multimedia presentation.
© 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
CPO certificates will then be available.
The first two sessions, which are now
available online, cover the
'Pathophysiology of Mitral Valve
Disease' by Adrian Boswood, and
'Clinical Examination of the Cardiac
Dog', by Gerard Le Bobinnec.
For further information, visit
www.cardioacademy.cevalearn.com or
call your local Ceva account manager.
CPD course on client care
Davies Veterinary Specialists [DVS] has
announced two CPO lectures on client
care. The sessions have been
introduced to provide specific
communication and customer service
training for veterinary nurses and the
practice's front of house staff, but are
also open to members of other
veterinary practices.
The first lecture has already been held
and the second will be held in the DVS
lecture theatre on 24th May 2011.
The lectures are presented by
Sarah Noyce, an ex-senior veterinary
FEATURE
nurse who specialises in enhancing
the communication and business
skills of those working in the veterinary
profession.
The second lecture will explore how
to deal with 'The Difficult Client'. It
will cover how to show empathy and
establish trust, how to deliver a
potentially negative message and how
to interpret body language when
communicating with clients.
The CPO course is free of charge.
Registration commences at 6pm and
the sessions will finish by 7.30pm.
Complimentary drinks and a finger
buffet are included and CPO certificates
can be provided on request.
For further information contact DVS
training manager, Liz Branscombe,
on 01582 883950 or e-mail
lbranscombefavetspecialists.co.uk
Answers to questions on page 157
Reproductive system of the dog and
cat. Part 3- reproductive physiology
of the bitch
1 d, 2b, Jb, 4c, 5a, be, 7a, Be, 9a, 1Db.
Veterinary Nursing Journal• VOL 26 • May 2011 • Page 175