Fuel 365 (2024) 131182

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Full Length Article

RCCI combustion of ammonia in dual fuel engine with early injection of

diesel fuel
Amir Hossein Fakhari a, Ayat Gharehghani a, *, Mohammad Mahdi Salahi b,
Amin Mahmoudzadeh Andwari b
a
School of Mechanical Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran
b
Machine and Vehicle Design (MVD), Materials and Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Technology, University of Oulu, FI-90014 Oulu, Finland

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Ammonia has gained considerable attention as a valuable, carbon-free alternative fuel for internal combustion
RCCI combustion engine (ICE) applications. The growing interest in ammonia’s potential as an energy source stems primarily from
Ammonia its advantageous storage and transport properties. The reactivity-controlled compression ignition (RCCI) com­
Dual Fuel
bustion mode presents a promising avenue for overcoming the challenges intrinsic to conventional diesel en­
Blend Ratio
Injection Timing
gines, such as elevated nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) emissions. Additionally, it addresses
the limitations of both homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) combustion (limited operational range)
and premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI) combustion (diminished power output). The application of an
ammonia-based RCCI combustion strategy emerges as a viable pathway for harnessing ammonia as a fuel. In this
study, a numerical simulation on a single-cylinder heavy-duty engine operated in RCCI mode is conducted uti­
lizing ammonia and diesel as fuels. The engine is operated at medium load and 910 RPM. The simulation results
are validated against experimental data sourced from existing literature. The study investigates the impact of
varying ammonia energy fractions, injection timing, and intake valve close temperature (TIVC) on key operational
characteristics of the engine including in-cylinder pressure, heat release rate (HRR), combustion efficiency (CE),
indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP), and emission levels. The results indicated that increasing the ammonia
energy fraction within the RCCI combustion mode, transitioning from 30 % to 70 %, leads to a notable
enhancement in IMEP, while maintaining low levels of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), unburned
ammonia, and nitrous oxide (N2O) as greenhouse gases (GHG). Furthermore, increasing ammonia’s energy
fraction yielded a discernible reduction in NOx emissions and carbon dioxide (CO2). Conversely, the RCCI
combustion mode attained superiority over the dual fuel combustion mode by simultaneously elevating CE and
diminishing emissions of GHG, (CO2 and N2O) as well as unburned NH3.

1. Introduction source across various engineering domains [1]. However, the ever-
increasing progress of science and technology has intensified the chal­
ICEs are distinguished by their high thermal efficiency, acceptable lenges posed by energy consumption and environmental pollution. It is
fuel economy, and wide power range, making them a prevalent power estimated that the global consumption of fossil energy amounts to nearly

Abbreviations: AMR, Adaptive Mesh Refinement; aTDC, after Top Dead Center; BMEP, Brake Mean Effective Pressure; bTDC, before Top Dead Center; CA90/50/
10, Crank Angle of 90/50/10% Heat Release; CD, Combustion Duration; CDC, Conventional Diesel Combustion; CFD, Computational Fluid Dynamics; CO, Carbon
Monoxide; CO2, Carbon Dioxide; DOC, Diesel Oxidation Catalyst; EVC, Exhaust Valve Closing; EVO, Exhaust Valve Opening; GHG, Greenhouse Gases; HC, Hy­
drocarbons; HCCI, Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition; HRF, High Reactivity Fuel; HRR, Heat Release Rate; ICE, Internal Combustion Engine; IMEP, Indicated
Mean Effective Pressure; ITE, Indicated Thermal Efficiency; IVC, Inlet Valve Closing; IVO, Inlet Valve Opening; KHRT, Kelvin-Helmholtz Rayleigh-Taylor; LRF, Low
Reactivity Fuel; LTC, Low-Temperature Combustion; N2O, Nitrous Oxide; NH3, Ammonia; NO, Nitric Oxide; NOx, Nitrogen Oxides; PCCI, Premixed Charge
Compression Ignition; PISO, Pressure implicit with splitting of operator; PM, Particulate Matter; RANS, Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes; RCCI, Reactivity
Controlled Compression Ignition; RNG, Re-normalization group; SCR, Selective Catalytic Reduction; SOC, Start of Combustion; SOI, Start of Injection; TIVC, Intake
Valve Close Temperature.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ayat_gharehghani@iust.ac.ir (A. Gharehghani).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2024.131182
Received 2 December 2023; Received in revised form 31 January 2024; Accepted 7 February 2024
Available online 12 February 2024
0016-2361/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Hossein Fakhari et al.
Fig. 1. Representation of an RCCI engine ().
Adopted from [25]
3.5 billion tons annually [2]. Furthermore, the combustion of fossil fuels
produces harmful emissions, including PM, NOx, and CO2, which cause a
threat to human health and serve as the primary cause of global
warming [3]. With the emergence of the global warming issue, emission
standards have become increasingly stringent worldwide [4]. For such
reasons as the challenges presented by concerns over the mass of the
battery system and the stability, ICEs remain vital for heavy-duty (HD)
power generation, with such applications as marine vessels and power
plants. As a result, there is currently active progress in the domain of
massive-scale transportation towards the development of an engine that
utilizes carbon–neutral fuels like NH3 and hydrogen to reduce carbon
emissions [5]⋅NH3 exhibits significant potential for rapidly decarbon­
izing marine transportation, HD engines, and off-road vehicles.
Furthermore, as NH3 has a higher volumetric hydrogen content than
even liquid hydrogen, enabling easy storage and transportation, it
constitutes a promising renewable fuel candidate for future propulsion
systems [6]. Hence, there is a compelling need to prioritize research into
NH3 utilization in ICEs for these sectors⋅NH3 provides the benefit of
emitting no CO2, which is one of the greenhouse gas emissions. Addi­
tionally, NH3 possesses an octane number higher than that of gasoline
[7], allowing for the application of high compression ratios. Further­
more, combustion can be held stable under high load states. Neverthe­
less, it is important to note that there is a potential for the emission of
unburned NH3, and the oxidation process of NH3 unavoidably leads to
the generation of NOx [8]. Furthermore, using NH3 leads to the imme­
diate production of nitrous oxide (N2O), which has a GHG effect that is
about 300 times greater than that of CO2 [9]. Owing to its elevated auto-
ignition temperature and comparatively sluggish flame propagation rate
in comparison to other fuels, NH3 engines may exhibit unburned NH3
and low combustion efficiency (CE) [6]. Consequently, combining
alternative fuels to enhance the combustion properties of NH3 through
novel combustion approaches including low-temperature combustion
(LTC) can be advantageous. LTC involves using a homogeneous and lean
air–fuel mixture, resulting in a uniform and lower temperature distri­
bution within the cylinder, and reducing heat transfer loss, which ulti­
mately leads to a higher thermal efficiency [10,11]. Even though, LTC
has several advantages, including improved fuel consumption, and
lower production of NOx and soot pollutants, its employment in com­
mercial engines faces significant challenges such as unburned HC
2
Fuel 365 (2024) 131182
emissions, limited operating range, unstable control at the start of
combustion (SOC), and cycle-to-cycle variations [12,13]. LTC combus­
tion includes three phases: pre-combustion, combustion, and post-
combustion, with each phase being influenced by different factors,
such as charge flow characteristics, chemical kinetic behavior, and
chemical and turbulent mixing conditions [14]. The LTC can be ach­
ieved through different strategies, including HCCI, PCCI, and reactivity
controlled compression ignition (RCCI) [15,16]. The results of the
studies presented in [17,18] have proven that HCCI and PCCI combus­
tion can lead to higher efficiency and less emission, however, these two
combustion strategies do not have stable performance in high load and
low load conditions, as the HRR amount, which is controlled by chem­
ical kinetics, can lead to the creation of high ringing intensity as well as
an excessive increase in the pressure in-cylinder. As a result, the control
of combustion phenomena in HCCI and PCCI engines is known to be an
important weakness for their development. Therefore, using a system
with dual fuel mode, such as the RCCI combustion strategy, due to its
high flexibility and better control of the combustion interval, can be a
solution [19,20]. The RCCI strategy employs a combination of in-
cylinder fuel mixing with fuels of different reactivities and various in­
jection patterns to regulate the combustion phase and combustion
duration. Specifically, low reactivity fuel (LRF) as NH3 can be injected
into the engine through the port to form a homogeneous blend of fuel,
air, and combustion residuals. On the other hand, high reactivity fuel
(HRF) like diesel is directly injected into the cylinder using single or
multiple injection strategies before the reaction of the premixed charge
is started [21,22]. RCCI combustion strategy can operate efficiently
across a broad range of engine loads while exhibiting lower NOx emis­
sions, ringing intensity, and acceptable pressure rise rate [23]. Fig. 1
represents an RCCI engine utilizing a combination of NH3 and diesel
fuels. A significant issue associated with NH3-fueled engines is the
considerable emission, including unburned NH3 and N2O. To address
this challenge, the recommended approach involves increasing the
intake air temperature and utilizing catalytic systems after treatment.
However, because of the requirement for bulky and weighty apparatus,
NH3 fuel seems to be more useful in HD engines, such as those employed
in marine applications [24]. In recent years, the growing attention to­
wards environmental protection laws and regulations, combined with
rapid technological advancements, has catalyzed an expansion in
research concerning NH3 fuel.
Niki [26] conducted an experimental study to evaluate the effect of
advancing the diesel pilot injection time, and changing the injected
diesel fuel and NH3 mass on combustion performance and emissions in
NH3/diesel RCCI combustion. the tests showed advancing the diesel
pilot injection timing reduced concentration of NH3 and N2O emissions,
while excessive advancement of the combustion phasing can reduce
brake thermal efficiency. Moreover, early diesel pilot injection retarded
the combustion phasing. It was also found that The RCCI combustion
strategy has the ability to effectively reduce unburned NH3 and N2O
emissions.
Yousefi et al. [27] conducted a numerical and experimental inves­
tigation of NH3/diesel dual-fuel combustion to decrease the production
of the GHG pollutant. A heavy single-cylinder diesel engine was
employed to examine the influence of diesel fuel injection time and NH3
energy fraction. The study found that increasing NH3 energy fraction
reduced peak cylinder pressure, delayed SOC, and combustion phasing,
and also reduced the engine thermal efficiency. It should be noted that
because of the poor flame propagation of premixed NH3-air mixture, a
considerable level of unburned NH3 was released during the combustion
process. Additionally, the study revealed that in the dual fuel mode, the
lowest level of GHG pollutant will be produced once the diesel fuel in­
jection time is advanced, resulting in a 12 % reduction compared to
conventional diesel combustion (CDC). Additionally, in this mode, the
indicate thermal efficiency (ITE) at the optimum GHG emission point
(ITE = 37.85 %) was marginally less than that of CDC (ITE = 38.53 %).
Moreover, NOx and CO emissions experienced a reduction of 10 % and
A. Hossein Fakhari et al. Fuel 365 (2024) 131182

Table 1
Engine characteristics [27].
Parameter Specifications

Model Caterpillar 3400

Speed 910 rpm
Connecting rod length 261.62 mm
Compression ratio 16.25
Number of cylinders 1
Displacement 2.44 L
Bore × Stroke 137.2 × 165.1 mm
Exhaust valve closing (EVC) 348.3◦ aTDC
Exhaust valve opening (EVO) 145.3◦ aTDC
Intake valve closing (IVC) − 169.7◦ aTDC
Intake valve opening (IVO) − 358.3◦ aTDC

Fig. 3. Comparison of HRR and in-cylinder pressure values from experimental

[27] and numerical methods.

Fig. 2. Combustion chamber configuration of the engine.

Table 2
Specifications fuels [40–43].
Property Diesel NH3

Cetane Number 44.9 –

LHV (MJ/kg) 45 18.64
Auto-ignition Temperature (◦ C) 226 651
Density @ 288 K (kg/m3) 824 0.73
Fig. 4. Comparison of N2O and CO2 GHG emissions-level between numerical
Stoichiometric Air/Fuel Ratio 14.5 6.06
and experimental [27] values.
Latent Heat of Vaporization (kJ/kg) 270 1370
Energy Density (MJ/m3) 36,403 11,333
H/C Ratio 1.78 –

Table 3
Initial and boundary conditions for validation.
Condition Setting

Start of diesel injection ( bTDC)

◦
24
Injection duration of diesel (deg) 12
Mass of diesel fuel (mg/cycle) 11.5
Mass of NH3 (mg/cycle) 97.9
IVC Temperature (K) 350
IVC Pressure (bar) 1.3
Equivalent ratio 0.35

20 % respectively, compared to CDC.

Liu et al. [28] conducted a study to examine the impact of varying
three SOI at − 3◦ aTDC, − 1◦ aTDC, and 1◦ aTDC, in conjunction with
three different diesel energy fractions at 1 %, 5 %, and 10 %, on the
combustion and emission characteristics of a marine low-speed engine
operating at full load conditions. The findings revealed that the Fig. 5. The HRR and in-cylinder pressure for various NH3 energy fractions in
advancement of injection time has a noticeable impact on the peak RCCI combustion mode.
cylinder pressure, whereas increasing diesel energy fractions resulted in
a higher HRR under the NH3/diesel stratified injection mode, with a

3
A. Hossein Fakhari et al.
Fig. 6. Influence of NH3 energy fractions variation on CA10, CA50, and CA90
in RCCI combustion mode.
Fig. 7. Influence of NH3 energy fractions variation on CE in RCCI combus­
tion mode.
shorter ignition delay time than the original diesel engine. Additionally,
the NOx emission was increased with injection timing advancement and
higher diesel energy fractions, while the quantity of unburned NH3 was
decreased. The NOx emissions remained lower than those of the original
diesel engine under various combinations of injection timing and diesel
energy fractions. Advancing injection timing is an effective approach to
reduce unburned NH3 and significantly GHG emissions reduction.
Zhu et al. [29] numerically studied NH3/diesel dual fuel combustion
with a focus on the potential of emission reduction via low-pressure gas
injection in two-stroke marine engines. They investigated different NH3
substitution ratio (0–60 %). The results showed that NH3 admission has
a noteworthy restraining impact on the auto-ignition of the pilot fuel. A
rise in the NH3 substitution ratio led to a longer ignition delay, which
caused an increase in the intensity of premixed combustion. These
findings showed that the NH3 admission process had a significant impact
on the combustion process. The emission of NOx decreased when the
NH3 substitution ratio is lower 40 % but dropped considerably when it
over 40 %. On the other hand, the CO2 GHG emission decreased
4
Fuel 365 (2024) 131182
Fig. 8. Influence of NH3 energy fractions variation on IMEP in RCCI combus­
tion mode.
Fig. 9. Influence of NH3 energy fractions variation on CO and NOx emission
level in the RCCI combustion mode.
consistently as the NH3 substitution ratio rised, while maintaining the
same total fuel energy. This confirmed that the utilization of zero-carbon
fuel is the most effective way to reduce CO2 GHG emissions. Further­
more, it has been concluded that there is a trade-off between N2O and
NOx emissions.
Zhu et al. [30] conducted a numerical study to explore the fuel in­
jection strategy in dual fuel mode for a low-speed two-stroke diesel
engine operating at full load. They also examined the feasibility of uti­
lizing NH3 as a substitute for diesel fuel in low-carbon combustion for
marine engines. the results showed that a larger amount of ignition fuel
is needed for NH3 combustion due to its higher ignition energy re­
quirements. Injection duration had a more significant impact on fuel
consumption during cylinder combustion compared to injection timing.
Properly timed injection can considerably reduce NOx emissions
without affecting fuel consumption. In dual-fuel mode, advancing fuel
injection timing led to a considerable increase in cylinder compression
and explosion pressure. Overall, their results suggested that utilizing
appropriate fuel injection strategies in dual fuel mode can significantly
decrease emissions while preserving engine performance.
A. Hossein Fakhari et al.
Fig. 10. Effect of NH3 energy fractions variation on NO emission level and
Mean-Temp in RCCI combustion mode.
Shin and Park [9] conducted a numerical investigation on the com­
bustion characteristics of a dual fuel engine that uses NH3 and diesel.
The main objective was to optimize the combustion strategy by exam­
ining the impact of two key parameters including NH3 energy fraction
(ranging from 40 to 90 %) and diesel injection timing (ranging from 15
to 80◦ bTDC). The findings indicated that advancing the diesel injection
timing resulted in a shortened CD and a shift towards premixed com­
bustion characteristics. Increasing NH3 energy fraction and advancing
the injection timing resulted in a maximum efficiency growth of 11 % in
comparison to diesel combustion. Furthermore, the premixed combus­
tion effect caused a rise in combustion temperature, leading to a sig­
nificant reduction in N2O emissions due to thermal decomposition. CO2
GHG emissions were found to be proportional to diesel quantity.
Consequently, raising NH3 energy fraction and advancing the injection
timing resulted in a reduction of up to 80.6 % in the production of GHG
pollutant when compared to CDC.
Xiang et al. [31] conducted an experimental study to examine the
emission characteristics of a dual fuel engine that uses NH3 and diesel.
The engine was equipped with a Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC) and
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) after-treatment system. The re­
searchers performed NH3/diesel dual combustion on a four-cylinder
diesel engine with a common rail system, and the exhaust system was
fitted with a DOC + SCR purifier. The study aimed to investigate the
impact of the NH3 fraction and the after treatment system on the
emission properties of the dual fuel engine. The results indicate that as
the NH3 fraction increases, the emissions of HC, CO, and N2O from the
NH3/diesel dual fuel engine also increase, while the emissions of NOx
decrease. The implementation of SCR further reduces the emissions of
NOx, N2O, and NH3 in the exhaust. However, due to the NH3/NOx ratio,
there is still a significant amount of NOx and NH3 emissions at the SCR
outlet. also, the conversion efficiency of N2O SCR is relatively low. Due
to high N2O emissions from dual fuel engines, the direct introduction of
NH3 cannot significantly reduce GHG emissions.
Liu et al. [32] conducted an experimental study to examine the
combustion characteristics of NH3 /diesel dual fuel on a modified four-
cylinder turbocharged diesel engine with a common rail system. The
researchers investigated the impact of NH3 energy fraction, diesel in­
jection pressure, and diesel injection timing on in-cylinder combustion,
emission levels, and the GHG effect of the engine. The results showed
that the combustion process of NH3 /diesel dual fuel is limited by inef­
ficient combustion and inhibition effects of NH3 fuel. As the NH3 energy
fraction increases, the combustion process of the dual fuel is delayed,
resulting in a reduction in peak pressure within the cylinder. Addition­
ally, the ignition delay and combustion duration are significantly
5
Fuel 365 (2024) 131182
prolonged, without any improvement in brake thermal efficiency. The
introduction of NH3 fuel leads to a significant reduction in emissions of
NOx, soot, and CO2. However, it also results in a substantial increase in
emissions of unburnt NH3 and N2O.
Li et al. [33] conducted an experimental study on a 4-cylinder
common rail diesel engine, where they implemented a dual fuel com­
bustion mode using hydrogen and diesel fuels. The objective was to
investigate the impact of hydrogen replacement ratio and diesel injec­
tion timing on various aspects of in-cylinder combustion, emission
characteristics, and fuel consumption. The findings revealed that as the
hydrogen replacement ratio increased, the engine’s maximum combus­
tion pressure decreased while the peak phase advanced gradually.
Additionally, the combustion duration increased. The emissions of NO,
CO2, CO, soot, and HC all decreased, whereas NOx emissions initially
decreased and then increased.
Dupuy et al. [34] conducted a study to examine how the composition
of diesel and NH3 affects the performance and emission of GHG in an
RCCI engine. The objective of their experiments was to investigate the
impact of different equivalence ratios of NH3-air mixtures, ranging from
ultra-lean to slightly rich conditions, on combustion characteristics and
emissions. The findings revealed that the variation in the diesel energy
fraction significantly influences GHG emissions. Additionally, the CD
and the maximum mean temperature in-cylinder, which depend on the
equivalence ratio of the premix, were identified as crucial factors
affecting N2O emission levels. In conclusion, the study demonstrated
that minimizing the quantity of pilot-injected diesel may not necessarily
be the most effective approach for reducing the carbon footprint.
Based on the comprehensive literature review presented, NH3 ex­
hibits substantial potential as an alternative fuel for ICEs to effectively
curtail GHG emissions, particularly CO2. Nevertheless, the elevated
auto-ignition temperature of NH3 necessitates the integration of a pilot
injection of fuel with heightened reactivity to enable combustion in CI
engines, analogous to the methodology observed engines in RCCI en­
gines. However, there is a lack of research examining the use of NH3 in
combination with diesel in RCCI combustion mode. This study employs
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to conduct a detailed analysis of
NH3/diesel RCCI combustion. To simulate the combustion process, a
reduced chemical reaction kinetics mechanism for NH3/diesel is
employed and validated by comparing with experimental results from
Yousef et al. [27]. Given the importance of diesel spray distribution
throughout the combustion in NH3/diesel RCCI engines, this study in­
vestigates the impact of SOI on fuel distribution for different injection
times under various initial engine temperatures (TIVC) together with
different NH3 energy fractions.
2. Numerical methodology
A numerical simulations were carried out utilizing the commercial
CFD software CONVERGE v3.1 [35]. In order to predict combustion and
pollutant levels, the chemical reaction kinetics mechanism of NH3/n-
Heptane was incorporated with the CFD solver. A decreased chemical
reaction kinetics mechanism consisting of three hundred eighty-nine
reactions and sixty-nine species was used [36]. The model commences
at the Intake Valve Closing (IVC) stage, with a uniform mixture of NH3,
air, and gas residues, and goes on up to the Exhaust Valve Opening
(EVO) stage. This study simulates the NH3/diesel dual fuel combustion
in a single-cylinder HD Caterpillar 3400 engine, the specifications of
which is tabulated in Table 1. The simulation was carried out based on
the approach outlined by Yousefi et al. [27]. The initiation of RCCI
ignition conditions occurs through the advancement of the SOI timing
for diesel fuel.
2.1. Modelling description
To simulate the combustion process, a sophisticated solver known as
SAGE is utilized, which specializes in transient chemical kinetics. This
A. Hossein Fakhari et al.
Fig. 11. Concentration of NH3 and temperature for different NH3 energy fractions at − 10◦ .
solver was used in transient mode, meaning that in each time step and
cell, this solver computed the mass fractions for different species just
prior to solving the transport equation, for which the pressure implicit
with splitting of operator (PISO) technique was employed. The proper­
ties of diesel fuel are accurately indicated by the “DIESEL2″ fuel surro­
gate, obtained from the CONVERGE library. The properties were used
for modeling spray and mixing processes [35]. Liquid injection is facil­
itated by the utilization of the Blob injection sub-model, where the
diameter of the injected liquid parcel is defined to be equal to the size of
the nozzle’s hole. This sub-model allows for an accurate representation
of the liquid injection process within the simulation [37,38]. The
simulation of the diesel spray takes into account the elevated injection
pressure of the diesel by employing the Kelvin-Helmholtz Rayleigh-
Taylor (KH-RT) mode [38]. In order to model heat transfer between the
cylinder wall and the working fluid, the simulation employs the Stan­
dard Wall Function model. Turbulence in the combustion chamber flow
field is modeled using the Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS)
based re-normalization group (RNG) k-ε model [39]. To accurately
resolve the details in the turbulent flame front, adaptive mesh
6
Fuel 365 (2024) 131182
refinement is used to generate a base grid size of 0.002 m.
2.2. Computational modelling details
Converge utilizes the Adaptive Mesh Refinement (AMR) algorithm to
automate the mesh generation process. The AMR algorithm, which
employs a tree-based data structure, generates a mesh by refining and
coarsening grid cells according to specific criteria, including gradients in
solution variables, geometric properties of the model, and physical
phenomena such as shock waves or boundary layers. Fig. 2 presents the
geometry of the investigated diesel engine in the top dead center.
Considering the axial symmetry of the in-cylinder geometry and to
expedite computational processes, simulations are conducted on a 1/6
segment of the cylinder, featuring one single injector hole. The peak cell
count reaches 2 million cells, when both spray embedding and AMR are
active during the diesel spray simulation.
A. Hossein Fakhari et al.
Fig. 12. Influence of NH3 energy fractions variation on HC and unburned NH3
emission level in RCCI combustion mode.
Fig. 13. Influence of NH3 energy fractions variation on N2O and CO2 GHG
emission level in RCCI combustion mode.
2.3. Boundary conditions definition and validation
It is assumed that NH3/diesel RCCI engine is operated on the basis of
the assumption that NH3 fuel is introduced into the cylinder via the
intake manifold, while a direct injection approach is used for diesel fuel.
Table 2 provides details regarding the properties of the utilized fuels.
Table 3 lists the simulation states chosen to validate the model. The
conditions which were derived from the experimental setup, included an
engine with medium load, corresponding to a Brake Mean Effective
Pressure (BMEP) of 8.10 bar [27]. To verify the accuracy of the simu­
lations, the combustion characteristics such as the Heat Release Rate
(HRR), the in-cylinder pressure, and CO2 and N2O GHG emissions curves
were compared to experimental results obtained from Yousefi et al. [27].
The diesel fuel was injected at a SOI timing of 24◦ bTDC, and NH3 fuel
contributed to 40 % of the total energy fraction. Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 show
the validation of in-cylinder pressure-HRR and CO2-N2O GHG emissions
compared with experimental data, respectively. It can be seen that there
is a good agreement between the numerical and experimental values in
both the pressure-HRR section and the GHG emissions section.
7
Fuel 365 (2024) 131182
3. Results and discussion
Simulation results of the NH3/diesel fueled engine operating in RCCI
combustion mode are presented by detail in this section. First, the
characteristics of combustion and emission were analyzed for different
NH3 energy fractions (30 to 80 % from total energy) at a constant value
for initial in-cylinder temperature in the IVC timing (TIVC) of 420 K and
SOI of 60◦ bTDC. in the meanwhile, the impact of injection timing of
diesel fuel from 20 to 80◦ bTDC and TIVC from 420 to 480 K on com­
bustion and emission characteristics are investigated simultaneously. To
ensure stable engine operation and to prevent rapid pressure rise, it is
important to use the proper blend ratios for NH3 and diesel fuels. Pre­
vious researches [9,44] proven that the optimal range for the NH3 en­
ergy fraction is between 60 % and 90 %. However, according to the
applied TIVC, NH3 energy fraction of 75 % was chosen in this study
preventing incomplete combustion.
3.1. Influence of NH3 energy fraction
Fig. 5 illustrates the impacts of various NH3 energy fractions on the
in-cylinder pressure and the HRR in the RCCI mode. Generally, it is
observed that as the NH3 energy fraction increases, the engine perfor­
mance deteriorates, and in-cylinder pressure decreases due to the
presence of unburned NH3. For NH3 energy fractions of 30 % and 40 %,
the cylinder peak pressure remains the same and occurs at TDC. How­
ever, with furthermore NH3 energy fraction, the in-cylinder pressure
drops significantly as the combustion of NH3/diesel occurs after TDC. It
should be noted that 80 % of the NH3 energy fraction at TIVC of 420 K is
considered as misfire combustion. Investigating the HRR curves, it is
evident that as the NH3 energy fraction increases, the premixed com­
bustion area (first peak) experiences lower HRRs and occurs in a longer
CD. This is attributed to the lower amount of diesel (HRF) which results
in poor auto-ignition leading to a longer combustion duration.
Furthermore, it is clear that the duration of the diffusion combustion
area (second peak) of HRR increases with higher NH3 energy fractions.
Nadimi et al. [45] and Shin et al. [9] also reported similar results
regarding HRR and in-cylinder pressure.
Fig. 6 presents the effect of NH3 energy fraction change on three key
combustion related parameters, includingCA10, which can represent the
start of combustion, where 10 % of the total HRR is achieved, CA50,
which signifies the combustion phase, where 50 % of total fuel energy
has been released, and CA90, which marks the end of combustion. As the
NH3 energy fraction increases, the burning speed of NH3-air mixture
decreases due to the impact of slower flame propagation rate and lower
adiabatic flame temperature of NH3. Additionally, based on the HRR
curves illustrated in Fig. 5, there is a decline in the amount of HRR
during the premixed combustion region, which retards the CA10, CA50,
and CA90.
The CE indicates how much chemical energy in the fuel is converted
to the heat. Fig. 7 illustrates the CE for different NH3 energy fractions in
RCCI combustion mode. In the range of NH3 energy fraction between 30
% and 70 %, there is not remarkable change in CE. However, when the
NH3 energy fraction reaches 80 %, the CE observed to be decreased of
approximately 11 %. This decline can be attributed to misfire in the
combustion process and the slower burning rate of the NH3-air mixture.
This effect is also evident in the in-cylinder pressure and HRR by
decrease in values for the 80 % NH3 case, as shown in Fig. 5.
The IMEP is a fundamental parameter for determining engine effi­
ciency. IMEP is calculated by dividing the total work done during the
simulated cycle by engine displacement volume of the engine. Fig. 8
illustrates the influence of different NH3 energy fractions on IMEP. It can
be seen that as the NH3 energy fraction rises from 30 % to 70 %, the
IMEP increases. However, there is a slight reduction in IMEP when the
NH3 energy fraction reaches 80 %. It is obvious that too early CA50
increases the negative work due to high pressure during the compression
stroke and thus the IMEP will be decreased. Fig. 6 further supports these
A. Hossein Fakhari et al. Fuel 365 (2024) 131182

Fig. 14. Comprehensive comparison of IMEP, CE, NOx emission level, CO2 and N2O GHG emission in different NH3 energy fractions.

8
A. Hossein Fakhari et al. Fuel 365 (2024) 131182

10 1200 10 1200
20° bTDC Diesel = 25% 20° bTDC Diesel = 25%
40° bTDC 40° bTDC
NH3 = 75% NH3 = 75%
50° bTDC 50° bTDC
1000 1000
8 60° bTDC T = 420 K 8 60° bTDC T = 460 K
80° bTDC 80° bTDC

800 800
Pressure (Mpa)

Pressure (Mpa)

HRR ( J/deg)
6

HRR (J/deg)
6

600 600

4 4
400 400

2 2 200
200

0 0 0
0
320 340 360 380 400 320 340 360 380 400
Crank angle (deg) Crank angle (deg)

(a) (c)
10 1200 10 1200
20° bTDC Diesel = 25% 20° bTDC Diesel = 25%
40° bTDC 40° bTDC NH3 = 75%
NH3 = 75% 50° bTDC
50° bTDC 1000
1000 8 60° bTDC T = 480 K
8 60° bTDC T = 440 K
80° bTDC 80° bTDC

800 800
6
Pressure (Mpa)

Pressure (Mpa)

HRR ( J/deg)
HRR ( J/deg)

600 600
4
4
400 400

2
2 200 200

0
0 0
0
320 340 360 380 400 320 340 360 380 400

Crank angle (deg) Crank angle (deg)

(b) (d)

Fig. 15. Effect of diesel SOI timing on HRR and in-cylinder pressure at various TIVC (420 to 80 K).

findings by demonstrating that an increase in the NH3 energy fraction
resulted in a retarded combustion phasing, thereby confirming the rise
in IMEP. However, it is important to note that incomplete combustion at
NH3 energy fraction of 80 % contributed to IMEP fall (refer to Fig. 7).
The influence of NH3 energy fraction on the CO and NOx emission
levels at TIVC = 420 K in RCCI combustion mode is demonstrated in
Fig. 9. It is realized that as the NH3 energy fraction is raised to 70 %,
there is a slight rise in the CO amount, and for the NH3 energy fraction of
80 %, the CO emission level reaches its maximum (1.02 g/kW.h). It is
known that the oxidation of CO decreases with incomplete combustion,
leading to an increase in the CO emission level [40]. The reported CE in
Fig. 7 clearly reflects this trend. Additionally, when combustion tem­
perature rises, due to the delayed CA50, the CO amount will be
increased.
The primary components of NOx emissions from the engine are NO
and NO2. Considering that NH3 contains nitrogen atoms, its combustion
produces fuel NOx. Within the OH radical pool, NH2 is generated when a
hydrogen atom is removed from NH3. After the removal of another
hydrogen atom, NH is generated from NH2. These NH2 and NH radicals
then get into a reaction with oxygen to form NO. Thermal NOx is
generated when atmospheric nitrogen reacts with O and OH radicals at
temperatures above 1700 K. The thermal DeNOx process also plays a role
in NOx emission level during NH3 combustion, in the temperature range
of 800–1200 K. When the temperature is no more than 800 K, the re­
actions are insignificant, whereas above 1200 K, instead of forming N2,
NH3 is oxidized to form NO. The reactions that can be considered
important in the thermal DeNOx process include the interactions
between NO and NH2 [9,46]. In the NH3/diesel RCCI combustion mode,
the reaction of fuel NOx and thermal NOx production are dominant up to
the temperature of 1800 K, thus the formation of NO increases. There­
fore, when the in-cylinder temperature decreases throughout the
expansion stage, the thermal DeNOx process becomes dominant, and the
NO is removed. Consequently, NH3/diesel combustion is influenced by
the three processes of fuel NOx, thermal NOx, and thermal DeNOx.
Fig. 10, which examines the combustion temperature, and NO emission
level curves, illustrates a decline in NOx levels as the NH3 energy fraction
increases. The significant NOx reduction, in the NH3 energy fraction of
80 %, can be attributed to the decreased in combustion temperature
resulting from incomplete combustion.
Fig. 12 shows the influence of NH3 energy fraction changes on the HC
and unburned NH3 emissions in the RCCI combustion mode. The in­
crease in the NH3 energy fraction from 30 % to 70 % does not lead to any
notable alteration in HC emissions. Nevertheless, when the NH3 energy
fraction is raised beyond that point, there is a marked escalation in HC
emissions. This phenomenon can be attributed to an incomplete com­
bustion process. Additionally, HC formation mainly occurs in the low-
temperature region near the cylinder wall [47]. Consequently,
reducing the temperature within the cylinder at the NH3 energy fraction
of 80 % (refer to Fig. 10) reduces HC oxidation, leading to HC emissions
rise. It can also be observed that when the NH3 energy fraction rises, NH3
consumption becomes slower because of the low flame propagation
speed of NH3. Therefore, the amount of unburned NH3 increases.
Instead, as shown in Fig. 11, when the NH3 energy fraction increases, the
combustion is delayed thus according to the diesel combustion area, the

9
A. Hossein Fakhari et al.
Fig. 16. Concentration of OH in relation to SOI variations (20 to 80◦ bTDC) at TIVC = 460 K.
NH3 is formed in the low-temperature regions of the cylinder.
Fig. 13 illustrates the effect of substituting NH3 fuel with diesel on
the GHG emission levels of N2O and CO2 in the RCCI combustion mode.
The results reveal that the highest CO2 GHG emissions-level occur when
the NH3 energy fraction is 30 % (461 g/kW.h) wherein the quantity of
the diesel fuel is at its maximum (among the investigated cases), while
the lowest emissions-level are observed at an NH3 energy fraction of 80
% (113 g/kW.h) wherein the quantity of the diesel fuel is at its mini­
mum. As illustrated, CO2 decreases as the NH3 energy fraction increases.
This is because of the fact that in the NH3 the combustion does not
generate CO2. Zhu et al. [29] also reported similar results regarding CO2
GHG emissions. The utilization of NH3 as a fuel releases N2O, which is a
byproduct commonly associated with the combustion of nitrogen-
containing fuels. Reactions in Eq. (1) and Eq. (2) can be referred to as
the reaction pathways [48]. The reactions take place in the presence of
NO2 and NO at temperatures below 1400 K [49].
NH + NO → N2O + H (1)
NH2 + NO2 → N2O + H (2)
Upon analyzing the data, the observation indicates that when the
NH3 energy fraction is raised from 30 to 50 %, there is a minor decline in
N2O greenhouse gas emissions. However, this is subsequently followed
10
Fuel 365 (2024) 131182
by a slight rise up to 70 %. By examining the in-cylinder temperature
curves, it is revealed that the maximum peak temperature is reached in
NH3 energy fraction of 50 %. Consequently, the thermal decomposition
reaction of the N2O intensifies, resulting in a slight decrease in N2O GHG
emission level. This trend is well-supported by data from Fig. 10. In
contrast, as the energy fraction of NH3 increases, the NH3 flame speed
becomes slower and its flame temperature decreases. Consequently, the
oxidation process of NH3 extends, which increases the N2O production
tendency. Therefore, the decomposition and formation of N2O are
influenced by two factors of NH3 combustion, namely the combustion
speed and the in-cylinder temperature. Moreover, the significant in­
crease of N2O at NH3 energy fraction of 80 % is attributed to the
occurrence of incomplete combustion.
Fig. 14 provides a comprehensive comparison of various NH3 energy
fraction cases, focusing on IMEP, CE, NOx emission level, and GHG
emissions of CO2 and N2O. The results indicate that when using a 70 %
NH3 energy fraction in the RCCI combustion mode, while maintaining
CE and IMEP, there is a decrease in the level of NOx and GHG pollutants
compared to other cases. Therefore, this mode is considered the most
suitable among the alternatives. It was also observed that there is a
trade-off between the emission of N2O and NOx with the increase of NH3
energy fraction. Zhu et al. [29] also mentioned this issue. Further details
can be found in the preceding sections.
A. Hossein Fakhari et al.
Fig. 17. Concentration of NC7H16 in relation to SOI variations (20 to 80◦ bTDC) at TIVC = 460 K.
3.2. Combined effect of SOI and TIVC
This section focuses on investigating the influence of injection timing
of diesel fuel and different TIVC values on combustion characteristics in
NH3/diesel RCCI engine. According to the study, variations in com­
bustion characteristics occur as a result of differences in mixing time and
flame distribution, which are dependent on the diesel injection strategy.
Additionally, the amount of diesel used varies based on the NH3 energy
fraction, while keeping the total energy share of the fuel constant.
Fig. 15 displays the simulated in-cylinder pressure and HRR of the RCCI
engine under various amounts for SOI timings and TIVC, while main­
taining a 75 % share of total fuel energy for NH3. In all mentioned TIVC,
the advancement of the SOI timing from 20 to 40◦ bTDC leads to in-
cylinder peak pressure rise, and advancement in the SOC. However, at
SOI = 50◦ bTDC, the combustion mode transition from dual fuel to RCCI
occurred. In this case, when the SOI timing is advanced up to 80◦ bTDC,
it leads to an increase in in-cylinder peak pressure and a delay in the
SOC. The observed behavior can be ascribed to the comparatively
sluggish rate at which the flame propagates and the lower adiabatic
11
Fuel 365 (2024) 131182
flame temperature exhibited by NH3. Furthermore, advancing the SOI
timing results in a milder HRR at the SOC. Additionally, increasing the
TIVC values from 420 to 480 K advances the combustion phasing even
more with shorter CD and higher HRR, resulting in an earlier and higher
in-cylinder peak pressure.
Fig. 18 illustrates the impact of SOI timing on the CA10 at various
TIVC. For all investigated TIVC, shifting the SOI from 20 to 40◦ bTDC leads
to advancement of the CA10. It is also seen that, shifting the SOI from 40
to 80◦ bTDC delays the CA10. Fig. 16 presents concentration contours of
hydroxyl (OH), species, which confirms that combustion initiates earlier
at an SOI of 40◦ bTDC compared to other injection timings. This can be
attributed to the increased localized diesel fuel concentration zones, as
can be realized in the contours of Fig. 17. Furthermore, advancing the
SOI timing in the RCCI mode provides enough time for mixing the
injected fuel with air forming a uniform fuel mixture, e.g., HCCI mode,
which decreases the localized diesel fuel concentration zones leading to
a delayed SOC. Based on the Fig. 16 For SOI of 20◦ bTDC, it is observed
that combustion starts from the injection cone indicating a dual fuel
combustion mode, while for SOI of 50◦ bTDC, combustion starts from
A. Hossein Fakhari et al. Fuel 365 (2024) 131182

Fig. 18. Effect of different diesel SOI and TIVC on CA10.

Fig. 19. Effect of different diesel SOI and TIVC on CA50.

the mixed mixture indicating a RCCI combustion mode. By increasing
TIVC, there is not significant change in the CA10 at SOI = 20 up to 60◦
bTDC, but at SOI = 80◦ bTDC, it advances the CA10. Fig. 19 illustrates
the combustion phasing diagram in conjunction with variation of SOI
timing and TIVC. Almost similar to the CA10 version, the combustion
phasing advances until 50◦ bTDC; however, once the SOI timing sur­
passes 50◦ bTDC, the combustion phase experiences a delay as a result of
the ignition delay effect. Shin and Park [9] also reported similar results
regarding combustion phasing. Additionally, elevating the initial charge
temperature leads to enhanced reaction rates, subsequently causing an

12
A. Hossein Fakhari et al.
Fig. 20. Effect of different diesel SOI and TIVC on CD.
advancement in combustion phasing.
The influence of TIVC and SOI timing on the CD trend is demonstrated
in Fig. 20. It is noteworthy that this graph is solely reported for cases
with completed combustion. At the TIVC = 420 K, advancing the SOI
timing results in a monotonic reduction in CD because of the elevated
HRR during the initial combustion stages. HRR curves in Fig. 15a sup­
port this behavior. In contrast, at the TIVC = 440 K, even though the
pattern of CD changes is non-monotonic, it aligns with the pattern
observed in peak pressure, as shown in Fig. 15b. This implies that the
reaction rate is impacted by the average in-cylinder temperature. The
reduction of CD at SOI = 60◦ bTDC is attributed to the elevated HRR
during the initial combustion phase when most of the diesel fuel is
combusted. With earlier SOI, the diesel fuel is excessively premixed,
Fig. 21. Effect of diesel SOI timing and TIVC on CE.
13
Fuel 365 (2024) 131182
leading to reduced reaction rates for the lean mixture. Conversely,
retarded SOI timings slow down diesel combustion due to diffusion
processes. At the TIVC = 460 K, the earliest SOI timing is associated with
the shortest CD, which results in an almost uniform mixture. Under these
circumstances, the temperature at the end of the compression stroke
reaches a level that is adequate for igniting the mixture. However, the
presence of charge stratification and the transition to diesel mixing
controlled combustion contribute to a reduction in the overall reaction
rates. A similar trend is observed at TIVC = 480 K wherein generally it is
observed that for RCCI mode, the CD is shorter than the dual fuel mode
[9].
Fig. 21 illustrates the contours of CE variations in conjunction with
the SOI timing of diesel and TIVC changes. As can be seen, by using the
advanced SOI timing of 20 instead of 80◦ bTDC, CE is improved due to
sufficient opportunity for better mixing of fuel–air, except in the case of
TIVC = 420 K and SOI = 80◦ bTDC due to incomplete combustion oc­
currences. By comparison, increasing the TIVC in cases of SOI = 20◦
bTDC and SOI = 40◦ bTDC improves CE, owing to better combustion
performance (i.e., less incomplete combustion), as supported by HRR
curve and in-cylinder pressure (refer to Fig. 15). However, with more
advance injection timing, substantial changes in CE are not observed.
Fig. 22 shows the contours of IMEP variations in relation to on the
SOI timing of diesel and TIVC changes. It is worth noting that both cases
with completed combustion and the cases with misfire engine operation
are presented in these contours. Increasing TIVC from 420 up to 480 K
and also increasing SOI time from 20 to 40◦ bTDC causes the combustion
to be performed more efficiently, as demonstrated by the HRR curves
and in-cylinder pressure (refer to Fig. 15). The enhancement in com­
bustion efficiency raises the IMEP. It is noteworthy that there is misfire
combustion in the mentioned range in the 420 and 440 K cases. For all
other cases presented in Fig. 21, except for the case of TIVC = 420 K and
SOI = 80◦ bTDC, completed and high efficiency combustion is achieved,
as indicated by in-cylinder pressure and HRR. However, according to the
CA50 and CA10 graphs, the injection timings advancement from 40 to
80◦ bTDC, delays the combustion phasing, also causing a reduction in
A. Hossein Fakhari et al. Fuel 365 (2024) 131182

Fig. 24. Effect of diesel SOI timing and TIVC on CO emission level.
Fig. 22. Effect of diesel SOI timing and TIVC on IMEP.

Fig. 25. Effect of diesel SOI timing and TIVC on HC emission level.
Fig. 23. Effect of diesel SOI timing and TIVC on NOx emission level.

emission level is remarkably low. Conversely, it is noticeable that for

negative in-cylinder work, also increasing the work output of the cycle
various SOI timings, raising TIVC reduces the CO emission level. In cases
and raising the IMEP.
with lower TIVC, higher CO emission level is observed. More CO is
Fig. 23 depicts the contours for NOx emissions for various TIVC and
formed in hydrocarbon fuel rich regions with lower temperatures, often
SOI timings. In this study, NOx refers to the combined sum of NO and
caused by misfiring combustion. Consequently, higher cylinder tem­
NO2 [50]. It is evident that as the TIVC increases, the level of NOx
peratures result in lower CO emission levels within the cylinder. The
emission also increases for different SOI timings, given that nitrogen in
trend of HC emission for different SOI timings and TIVC is similar to that
the fuel is unavoidably generated from NOx throughout the combustion
for CO emission. In general, a reduction in combustion temperature,
process. Additionally, a higher TIVC advances the start of combustion
caused by delayed combustion phasing, will increase the levels of CO
and subsequently raises the in-cylinder temperature, subsequently
and HC emissions.
leading to the production of thermal NOx. Therefore, both fuel NOx
Fig. 26 illustrates the contours of unburned NH3 emissions for
produced through ammonia combustion and thermal NOx formed in the
various TIVC and SOI timings. The results show that aside from the SOI
high-temperature area contribute to the production of NOx throughout
timing of 80 bTDC and the TIVC of 420 K, which resulted in incomplete
the NH3/diesel combustion process. The high levels of NOx emission can
combustion having advanced SOI timing, the level of unburned NH3
be attributed to the high TIVC, which can be diminished in future
emission decreases significantly. This is attributed to the increased rate
research by optimal choosing the TIVC and the appropriate energy ratio
of NH3 combustion caused by longer mixing time and the fact that diesel
of NH3 and diesel.
fuel combusts rapidly. In addition, the rise in TIVC leads to a remarkable
Fig. 24 and Fig. 25 illustrate the CO and HC emission levels for
decrease in unburned NH3 emission level at all investigated injection
various SOI timings and TIVC changes ranging from 420 to 480 K. As
timings. According to the United States Occupational Safety and Health
illustrated, aside from TIVC of 420 K, once the SOI time is advanced from
Administration (OSHA), NH3 concentration above 50 ppm (approxi­
20 to 80◦ bTDC, the CO level stays relatively stable. Notably, the CO
mately 10 g/kW.h) is harmful to human health. Thus, this figure clearly

14
A. Hossein Fakhari et al.
Fig. 26. Effect of diesel SOI timing and TIVC on unburned NH3 emission level.
Fig. 27. Effect of diesel SOI timing and TIVC on N2O GHG emission level.
shows the superior performance of RCCI combustion mode compared to
dual fuel combustion mode, concerning unburned NH3 emission. Liu
et al. [28] and Niki [26] also confirmed this trend.
The formation of N2O is presented as a significant challenge in the
context of NH3 combustion due to its high GHG emission effect. Fig. 27
shows the N2O GHG pollutant level for various TIVC and SOI timings at
the EVO. it can be clearly seen that at high TIVC and appropriate SOI
timing, which guarantees the complete combustion, the level of N2O
GHG emission is minimal. However, an interesting observation in
Fig. 27 is the N2O GHG pollutant for the latest SOI time, specifically at
20◦ bTDC. While the rest of graphical representations demonstrate
satisfactory combustion with appropriate SOC timing, he increased
production of N2O, in this case, can be attributed to the relatively late
SOC timing, which leads to a higher concentration of pre-combustion
diesel fuel. Consequently, larger regions consisting purely of NH3 are
formed, where the predominant combustion mechanism entails the
propagation of flames from self-ignited regions rich in diesel. This pro­
gression of the combustion process can contribute to elevated levels of
N2O GHG pollutant when compared to the self-ignition of a mixture
comprising NH3 and diesel.
15
Fuel 365 (2024) 131182
4. Conclusion
A comprehensive numerical study was performed to examine the
influence of the NH3 energy fraction (ranging from 30 to 80 %) and the
combined influence of diesel injection timing (in the range of 20-80◦
bTDC) together with TIVC (ranging from 420 to 480 K) on the combus­
tion and emission levels of an RCCI engine fueled with a mixture of NH3/
diesel. The key conclusions of this research can be highlighted as:
• Raising the NH3 energy fraction retarded the combustion time,
decreased in-cylinder peak pressure, and raised the duration of the
diffusion combustion region. As the NH3 energy fraction was raised
from 30 % to 70 %, The CE remained almost constant, while the
IMEP increased.
• Raising the NH3 energy fraction from 30 % to 70 % reduced NOx
emission level but increased CO amount. No significant change was
observed in the HC and unburned NH3 emission levels. CO2 GHG
emission level also decreased with higher NH3 energy fraction.
Incomplete combustion produced high levels of CO, HC, unburned
NH3 emission and N2O GHG emission considerably.
• Among the various NH3 energy fractions in the RCCI combustion
mode, the optimum case was achieved in the NH3 energy fraction of
70 %. This case, coupled with proper engine operation, decreased
emissions of GHG and NOx emission level compared to other NH3
energy fractions.
• Increasing the TIVC values from 420 to 480 K advanced the com­
bustion phasing with a shorter duration and higher HRR, resulted in
an earlier and higher in-cylinder peak pressure. Higher TIVC
increased reaction rates, resulted in an advancement of combustion
phasing. For RCCI mode, the CD was shorter than the dual fuel mode.
• In all simulated TIVC, advancing the SOI time from 20 to 40◦ bTDC
increased in-cylinder peak pressure and advanced the SOC. However,
at SOI = 50◦ bTDC, the combustion mode transitions from dual fuel
to RCCI was occurred. In this case, advancing the SOI timing up to
80◦ bTDC, decreased in-cylinder peak pressure and a delayed the
SOC.
• With advance SOI timing from 20 to 80◦ bTDC, the CE was improved,
except in the case of TIVC = 420 K and SOI = 80◦ bTDC due to
incomplete combustion. Increasing the TIVC from 420 up to 480 K
and increasing the SOI time from 20 to 80◦ bTDC improved the IMEP,
if the incomplete combustion could be avoided.
• As the TIVC raised, the level of NOx pollutant also increased for
different injection timings. Except for TIVC of 420 K the SOI time was
advanced from 20 to 80◦ bTDC, the CO and HC emission levels
remained relatively constant. Lower combustion temperature,
caused by delayed combustion phasing, increased in levels of CO and
HC emissions. In contrast, with advanced SOI timing, the unburned
NH3 emission level decreased significantly.
• At high TIVC and appropriate SOI timing, with more complete com­
bustion, the level of N2O GHG emission is minimal.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Amir Hossein Fakhari: Writing – original draft, Visualization,
Validation, Software, Formal analysis, Methodology, Conceptualization.
Ayat Gharehghani: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Supervi­
sion, Project administration, Funding acquisition. Mohammad Mahdi
Salahi: Writing – original draft, Validation, Software, Formal analysis.
Amin Mahmoudzadeh Andwari: Writing – review & editing, Super­
vision, Project administration.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
A. Hossein Fakhari et al.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
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