JSS MAHAVIDHYAPEETHA

JSS ACDEMY OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION, NOIDA

BAS104 / BAS204: ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY

Unit 1 : Environment and Ecosystem

Nitin Kumar Chauhan

Assistant Professor
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 Environment
Environment
The term environment has been derived from a French word “Environia” means to
surround. It refers to both abiotic (physical or non-living) and biotic (living) environment.
The word environment means surroundings, in which organisms live. Environment and the
organisms are two dynamic and complex components of nature. Environment regulates
the life of the organisms including human beings.
Environmental Components
The environment consists of various segments such as atmosphere, hydrosphere,
lithosphere and biosphere.

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The Layers of Atmosphere

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 The Layers of Atmosphere
The Troposphere:
This is the lowest part of the atmosphere - the part we live in. It contains most of our
weather - clouds, rain, snow. In this part of the atmosphere the temperature gets colder as
the distance above the earth increases, by about 6.5°C per kilometre.
The troposphere contains about 75% of all of the air in the atmosphere, and almost all of
the water vapour (which forms clouds and rain). The decrease in temperature with height
is a result of the decreasing pressure. If a parcel of air moves upwards it expands (because
of the lower pressure). When air expands it cools. So air higher up is cooler than air lower
down.
The Stratosphere
This extends upwards from the tropopause to about 50 km. It contains much of the ozone
in the atmosphere. The increase in temperature with height occurs because of absorption
of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun by this ozone. Temperatures in the stratosphere
are highest over the summer pole, and lowest over the winter pole.
The Mesosphere
The region above the stratosphere is called the mesosphere. Here the temperature again
decreases with height, reaching a minimum of about -90°C at the "mesopause".

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 The Layers of Atmosphere
The Thermosphere and Ionosphere
The thermosphere lies above the mesopause, and is a region in which temperatures again
increase with height. This temperature increase is caused by the absorption of energetic
ultraviolet and X-Ray radiation from the sun.
The region of the atmosphere above about 80 km is also caused the "ionosphere", since
the energetic solar radiation knocks electrons off molecules and atoms, turning them into
"ions" with a positive charge. The temperature of the thermosphere varies between night
and day and between the seasons, as do the numbers of ions and electrons which are
present.
The Exosphere
The exosphere is the final frontier of the Earth’s gaseous envelope. There is no clear-cut
distinction between the Earth’s atmosphere layers and outer space. The region above
about 500 km is called the exosphere. there’s really no clear boundary between where
Earth’s atmosphere ends and outer space begins. It contains mainly oxygen and hydrogen
atoms, but there are so few of them that they rarely collide - they follow "ballistic"
trajectories under the influence of gravity, and some of them escape right out into space.

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Hydrosphere

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Lithosphere
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Biosphere
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Biosphere
The biosphere, which includes the ground and the air, is characterized as the
region of the planet where organisms live. The biosphere is defined as the
region on, above, and below the Earth’s surface where life exists.
The biosphere is a narrow zone on the surface of the earth where soil, water,
and air combine to sustain life. Life can only occur in this zone. From fungi and
bacteria to large animals, there are several different types of life.
The biosphere is characterized as an area that contains all living organisms and
the products of their activities. As a result, it plays a critical role in the
maintenance of ecosystems, i.e., the existence of species and their reciprocal
interactions. And the biosphere is critical for climate regulation.
Various environmental conditions, such as favorable temperature and moisture,
are needed for organisms to live on Earth. Energy and nutrients are also needed
by the species. The biosphere of the Earth contains all of the mineral and animal
nutrients needed for life.

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 Scope of Environment Education
1. Natural Resources - their conservation and
management
2. Ecology
3. Biodiversity and its conservation
4. Natural disaster
5. Social issues in relation to development and
environment
6. Human population and environment

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 Importance of Environment Education
➢ Environmental education helps the economy and impacts the welfare of human
society.
➢ It helps us in solving the issues like pollution measures, over exploitation of
natural resources, food problems and sustainable development.
➢ Environmental education helps us in finding ways to maintain ecological balance.
➢ As the industrialization is increasing and new technologies are growing, to
conserve and protect the environment we need eco-friendly products and methods,
it can be achieved only through proper knowledge of the environment.
➢ As the population is increasing we need large amounts of food and other resources
and different disposal methods for the removal of waste, this is possible only by
educating the people around us regarding proper conservation of environment,
through environmental education.
➢ Environmental education trains us to conserve our fast depleting natural resources.
➢ It helps us to understand the different food chains and the ecological balance in
nature.
➢ Environmental education helps in inculcating attitudes and values, encouraging
environmental protection and understanding the interdependence of nature and
man.

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 Need for Public Awareness
➢ The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de
Janerio in 1992, popularly known as 'Earth Summit' first highlighted the key
issues of global environmental concern which attracted the attention of the general
public towards the increase in deterioration of our environmental resources each
day.
➢ There is a Chinese proverb "if you plan for one year, plant rice, if you plan for 10
years, plant trees and if you plan for 100 years, educate people." If we want to
conserve the resources or our planet Earth, we need to make people
environmentally aware.
➢ It has to be recognized that the basis of human power and superiority lies in public
awareness about conservation of the environment. Individuals can involve
themselves in many ways in the process of improving the environment. Some are
listed below:
➢ We should not be extracting unnecessarily and exhaustively the natural resources such as
underground water, minerals, etc.
➢ We should not harness too much energy such as burning fossil fuel (solid, liquid or gaseous
fuel).
➢ We should not cut trees and use timber for aesthetic pleasure such as in decorating our
houses.
➢ We should preserve the forest area maximum.
➢ We should formulate and obey the moral codes meant for achieving a better environment.

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 Ecosystem
➢ An ecosystem consists of a community of organisms together with their
physical environment.
➢ Tansley (1935) described an ecosystem as a group of biotic communities
of species interacting with one another and with their non-living
environment exchanging energy and matter.
➢ Ecosystems can be of different sizes and can be marine, aquatic, or
terrestrial. Broad categories of terrestrial ecosystems are called biomes.
➢ In ecosystems, both matter and energy are conserved. Energy flows
through the system—usually from light to heat—while matter is recycled.
➢ Ecosystems with higher biodiversity tend to be more stable with greater
resistance and resilience in the face of disturbances, or disruptive events.
➢ Ecosystem is necessary for the maintenance of life on Earth.

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Structure of the Ecosystem

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Structure of the Ecosystem

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 Structure of the Ecosystem
Abiotic components refer to all non-living elements and
compounds in the ecosystem, including climates and climate-
components. Furthermore, the abiotic components are the
primary sources of energy and nutrients and set the stage for
proper ecosystem functioning.
The Sun is the primary source of energy for an ecosystem.
Other examples of abiotic components are light, humidity,
temperature, gas, water, air, minerals, soil, topography, and
various habitats.
The abiotic component can be grouped into following
categories: -
(a) Climatic Factors: Which include rain, temperature, light,
wind, humidity etc.
(b) Edaphic Factors: Which include soil, pH, topography
minerals etc.
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 Structure of the Ecosystem
Producers:
Producers, also called autotrophs, produce foods for many other organisms
using photosynthesis. Plants and trees fall under the category of producers.
All other biotic components (organisms measured above producers in a
food chain) rely on producers for food directly or indirectly.
Consumers:
Consumers, also known as heterotrophs, include organisms that depend on
other organisms for their food needs. Consumers are divided into primary,
secondary, tertiary, and quaternary consumers.
Decomposers:
Decomposers are also known as detritus or saprophytes. These include
microbes such as fungi and bacteria. Decomposers mainly rely on dead and
rotting organic components for their food requirements. They are essential
components of the ecosystem because they participate in recycling
nutrients, making them reusable for plants and trees.

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Structure of the Ecosystem

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 Types of Ecosystem
Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystems refer to all such ecosystems that are primarily located
on or inside water bodies. The nature and characteristics of all living and
non-living organisms in the aquatic system are determined based on the
environment surrounding their ecosystem. Organisms in these ecosystems
interact with other organisms in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. The
aquatic ecosystem is mainly sub-divided into the following types:
Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is one of the essential ecosystems for humans and
other organisms living on land. This is because this ecosystem is a source of
drinking water. Additionally, it also helps in providing the necessary energy and
water for transportation, recreation, etc. Freshwater ecosystems mainly
include lentic, lotic, and wetlands.
– Lentic: Water bodies that are moving slowly or are still in some places come
under lentic. For example, ponds, lakes, pools, etc. Lakes are known as large
water bodies and are surrounded by land.
– Lotic: Water bodies that are moving at a fast pace fall under a lotic. For
example, streams and rivers.
– Wetlands: Environments characterized by soils saturated with water for a
long time fall under wetlands.

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 Types of Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is the smallest type of ecosystem among the
major types of ecosystems. There is usually no salt content in the
freshwater ecosystem. Besides, it consists of many insects, small fish,
amphibians, and various plant species. Plants help provide oxygen through
photosynthesis and also provide food for the organisms living in this
ecosystem.
Marine Ecosystem
Marine ecosystems are usually characterized by the presence of salt
content. These ecosystems have a higher salt content than the freshwater
ecosystem. Moreover, they are known as the largest type of ecosystem on
Earth. It usually includes all the oceans and their parts. Besides, marine
ecosystems have a distinctive flora and fauna, which support greater
biodiversity than freshwater ecosystems. This type of ecosystem is essential
for both marine and terrestrial environments.
In particular, this ecosystem includes salt marshes, lagoons, coral reefs,
estuaries, intertidal zones, mangroves, seafloor, and deep seas. Salt
marshes, mangrove forests, and sea-grass meadows are said to be among
the most productive ecosystems. Coral reefs are known to provide
adequate quantities of food and shelter to most marine inhabitants
worldwide.
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 Types of Ecosystem
Terrestrial Ecosystem
Terrestrial ecosystem refers to all such ecosystems which are mainly located on land.
Although the presence of water in these ecosystems is measured, they are entirely land-
based and exist on land. More specifically, a low and sufficiently needed amount of water is
located in terrestrial ecosystems. The low amount of water separates these ecosystems from
aquatic ecosystems. Besides, terrestrial ecosystems typically have temperature fluctuations
in both seasonal and diurnal climates. It is also a specific factor that makes these ecosystems
different from aquatic ecosystems in similar environments.
Furthermore, the availability of light is somewhat higher in terrestrial ecosystems than in
aquatic ecosystems. The reason for this is that the climate in the land is relatively more
transparent than water. Due to entirely different light availability and temperature in
terrestrial ecosystems, they have diverse flora and fauna. Terrestrial ecosystems include
various ecosystems distributed around different geological zones.
Terrestrial ecosystems are mainly classified into the following types:
Forest Ecosystems
A forest ecosystem is an ecosystem where many organisms live together with the
environment's abiotic components. There are much different flora and fauna in this
ecosystem. This usually means that the forest ecosystem has a high density of living
organisms that live with non-living abiotic elements. The forest ecosystem usually includes
various plants, microorganisms, animals, and other species.
Forests are significant carbon sinks and participate in controlling and balancing the overall
temperature of the Erath. Changes in the forest ecosystem affect the entire ecological
balance, and severe changes or destruction of forests can also kill the whole ecosystem.
Forests are generally classified into tropical deciduous forests, tropical evergreen forests,
temperate deciduous forests, temperate forests, and Taig.
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 Types of Ecosystem
Grassland Ecosystems
Grassland ecosystems are referred to as those ecosystems where the number of
trees is low. These ecosystems mainly consist of grasses, shrubs, and herbs. That
means grasses are the primary vegetation in these ecosystems, along with legumes
that typically belong to the composite family.

Grassland ecosystems are commonly situated in both the tropical and temperate
regions globally; however, they have distinct variations. Examples of these
ecosystems include the savanna grasslands and temperate grasslands. They are
home to various grazing animals, insectivores, and herbivores.

Mountain Ecosystems
As the name suggests, the mountain ecosystem is characterized by mountainous
regions where the climate is usually cold, and rainfall is low. Due to these climate
changes, these ecosystems have a wide variety of habitats where various animal
and plant species are found. The high altitude areas of mountainous regions have a
cold and harsh climate. This is the reason why only treeless alpine vegetation is
found in these ecosystems. Animals found in these ecosystems usually have tick fur
coats to protect them from cold climates.

Besides, mainly coniferous trees exist on the lower slopes of the mountains.
Examples of mountain ecosystems include mountain tops in Arctic regions. They
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are covered with snow for most of the year.
 Types of Ecosystem
Desert Ecosystems
Desert ecosystems exist worldwide and cover about 17
percent of desert areas. These are areas where annual rainfall
is usually measured less than 25 mm. Due to fewer trees and
land of sand, sunlight intensifies in these ecosystems. This is
why these ecosystems have incredibly high temperatures and
low availability of water. However, the nights are quite cold.

The Desert ecosystem has unique flora and fauna. Plants

grow with small amounts of water and conserve water's
possible amount in their leaves and stems. For example, the
spiny-leafed cactus is a type of desert plant that has the
characteristic of storing water using a stem. Similarly, animals
are also adopted to the condition of desert ecosystems. Some
common animals are camels, reptiles, a diverse range of
insects and birds.
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 Functions of Ecosystem
Some of the most common functions of the ecosystem
are listed below:
• It helps to regulate all basic ecological processes,
manages life systems, and ensures sustainability.
• It participates in maintaining an equilibrium
structural process between different trophic levels of
ecosystem components.
• It is responsible for cycling minerals through the
biosphere.
• It maintains and regulates nutrient cycling between
abiotic and biotic ecosystem components.
• Along with abiotic components, the ecosystem
participates in the synthesis of organic components
primarily responsible for transferring energy.
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 ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM
• The energy flow in the ecosystem is one of the major factors that support the survival of
such a great number of organisms. For almost all organisms on earth, the primary source
of energy is solar energy.

• It is amusing to find that we receive less than 50 per cent of the sun’s effective radiation
on earth. When we say effective radiation, we mean the radiation, which can be used by
plants to carry out photosynthesis.

• Most of the sun’s radiation that falls on the earth is usually reflected back into space by
the earth’s atmosphere. This effective radiation is termed as the Photosynthetically
Active Radiation (PAR).

• Overall, we receive about 40 to 50 percent of the energy having Photosynthetically

Active Radiation and only around 2-10 percent of it is used by plants for the process of
photosynthesis. T

• Thus, this percent of PAR supports the entire world as plants are the producers in the
ecosystem and all the other organisms are either directly or indirectly dependent on
them for their survival. The energy cycle recycles nutrients into the soil on which plant
life grows.
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ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM

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 Nutrient Cycle in The Ecosystem
Every ecosystem has numerous interconnected mechanisms that affect human life. These
are the water cycle, the carbon cycle, the oxygen cycle, the nitrogen cycle and the energy
cycle. While every ecosystem is controlled by these cycles, in each ecosystem its abiotic and
biotic features are distinct from each other.

Carbon Cycle

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 Carbon Cycle
Following are the major steps involved in the process of the carbon cycle:

1. Carbon present in the atmosphere is absorbed by plants for photosynthesis.

2. These plants are then consumed by animals and carbon gets bioaccumulated into their bodies.
3. These animals and plants eventually die, and upon decomposing, carbon is released back into the
atmosphere.
4. Some of the carbon that is not released back into the atmosphere eventually become fossil fuels.
5. These fossil fuels are then used for man-made activities, which pump more carbon back into the
atmosphere

Importance of Carbon Cycle

• Carbon in the atmosphere is present in the form of carbon dioxide. Carbon enters the atmosphere
through natural processes such as respiration and industrial applications such as burning fossil fuels.
The process of photosynthesis involves the absorption of CO2 by plants to produce carbohydrates. The
equation is as follows:

CO2 + H2O + energy → (CH2O)n +O2

• Even though carbon dioxide is found in small traces in the atmosphere, it plays a vital role in balancing
the energy and traps the long-wave radiations from the sun. Therefore, it acts like a blanket over the
planet. If the carbon cycle is disturbed it will result in serious consequences such as climatic changes
and global warming. 29
 Oxygen Cycle
The steps involved in the oxygen cycle are:

Stage-1: All green plants during the process of photosynthesis, release oxygen back into the
atmosphere as a by-product.

Stage-2: All aerobic organisms use free oxygen for respiration.

Stage-3: Animals exhale Carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere which is again used by
the plants during photosynthesis. Now oxygen is balanced within the atmosphere.

As we all know, oxygen is one of the most essential components of the earth’s atmosphere.
It is mainly required for:

• Breathing

• Combustion

• Supporting aquatic life

• Decomposition of organic waste.

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 Water Cycle
• The water cycle is a multi-phase journey in which the water molecules from the Earth’s
surface make their way towards the atmosphere and return. Sun could be called the
powerhouse which initiates this process.
• There is a continuous exchange of moisture from the water bodies, atmosphere, and land
surface. Most of the moisture found in our atmosphere is a result of evaporation that occurs
from oceans, seas, lakes, etc. Evaporation is a process in which the water changes from the
liquid phase to the gaseous phase.
• Plants also play a role in releasing moisture through the process of transpiration. Plants take
in water from the ground through their root system and release them into the atmosphere,
with the help of small pores present on the leaves.
• As water vapours find their way into the lower atmosphere, the air currents raise them up
into the higher atmosphere. They undergo condensation there. Condensation is a process in
which matter changes its state from the gaseous phase to the liquid phase.
• This is the primary system involved in transporting water back to the earth’s surface.
• Once the precipitate falls on the surface of the earth, it takes various paths. Some of the
precipitates get evaporated. Others seep into the ground while some flow into oceans, rivers,
and streams. Hence, the hydrological cycle repeats itself continuously.

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Water Cycle

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 Water Cycle
• The water cycle is a multi-phase journey in which the water molecules from the Earth’s
surface make their way towards the atmosphere and return. Sun could be called the
powerhouse which initiates this process.
• There is a continuous exchange of moisture from the water bodies, atmosphere, and land
surface. Most of the moisture found in our atmosphere is a result of evaporation that occurs
from oceans, seas, lakes, etc. Evaporation is a process in which the water changes from the
liquid phase to the gaseous phase.
• Plants also play a role in releasing moisture through the process of transpiration. Plants take
in water from the ground through their root system and release them into the atmosphere,
with the help of small pores present on the leaves.
• As water vapours find their way into the lower atmosphere, the air currents raise them up
into the higher atmosphere. They undergo condensation there. Condensation is a process in
which matter changes its state from the gaseous phase to the liquid phase.
• This is the primary system involved in transporting water back to the earth’s surface.
• Once the precipitate falls on the surface of the earth, it takes various paths. Some of the
precipitates get evaporated. Others seep into the ground while some flow into oceans, rivers,
and streams. Hence, the hydrological cycle repeats itself continuously.

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 Nitrogen Cycle
• “Nitrogen Cycle is a biogeochemical process which transforms the inert nitrogen present in
the atmosphere to a more usable form for living organisms.”

Following are the major steps involved in the process of the nitrogen cycle:

➢ Nitrogen is abundant in the atmosphere, but it is unusable to plants or animals unless it is

converted into nitrogen compounds.
➢ Nitrogen-fixing bacteria play a crucial role in fixing atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogen
compounds that can be used by plants.
➢ The plants absorb the usable nitrogen compounds from the soil through their roots. Then,
these nitrogen compounds are used for the production of proteins and other compounds in
the plant cell.

➢ Animals assimilate nitrogen by consuming these plants or other animals that contain
nitrogen. Humans consume proteins from these plants and animals. The nitrogen then
assimilates into our body system.
➢ During the final stages of the nitrogen cycle, bacteria and fungi help decompose organic
matter, where the nitrogenous compounds get dissolved into the soil which is again used by
the plants.
➢ Some bacteria then convert these nitrogenous compounds in the soil and turn it into
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nitrogen gas. Eventually, it goes back to the atmosphere.
Nitrogen Cycle

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 Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen fixation
This process involves conversion of gaseous nitrogen into Ammonia, a
form in which it can be used by plants. Atmospheric nitrogen can be
fixed by the following three methods: -
(i)Atmospheric fixation: Lightening, combustion and volcanic activity help in the
fixation of nitrogen.

(ii) Industrial fixation: It is a man-made alternative that aids in nitrogen fixation

by the use of ammonia. Ammonia is produced by the direct combination of
nitrogen and hydrogen. Later, it is converted into various fertilisers such as urea.

(iii) Bacterial fixation: There are two types of bacteria- nitrogen is not used
directly from the air by plants and animals. Bacteria like Rhizobium and blue-
green algae transform the unusable form of nitrogen into other compounds that
are more readily usable. These nitrogen compounds get fixed in the soil by
these microbes.
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 Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrification
In this process, the ammonia is converted into nitrate by the presence of bacteria in
the soil. Nitrites are formed by the oxidation of ammonia with the help of
Nitrosomonas bacteria species. Later, the produced nitrites are converted into
nitrates by Nitrobacter. This conversion is very important as ammonia gas is toxic for
plants.

Assimilation
Primary producers – plants take in the nitrogen compounds from the soil with the
help of their roots, which are available in the form of ammonia, nitrite ions, nitrate
ions or ammonium ions and are used in the formation of the plant and animal
proteins.

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 Nitrogen Cycle
Ammonification
When plants or animals die, the nitrogen present in the organic matter is released
back into the soil. The decomposers, namely bacteria or fungi present in the soil,
convert the organic matter back into ammonium. This process of decomposition
produces ammonia, which is further used for other biological processes.

Denitrification
Denitrification is the process in which the nitrogen compounds make their way back
into the atmosphere by converting nitrate (NO3-) into gaseous nitrogen (N). This
process of the nitrogen cycle is the final stage and occurs in the absence of oxygen.
Denitrification is carried out by the denitrifying bacterial species- Clostridium and
Pseudomonas, which will process nitrate to gain oxygen and gives out free nitrogen
gas as a by-product.

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 Food Chain and Food Web
➢ The transfer of energy from the source in plants through a series of organisms
by eating and being eaten constitutes food chains.

➢ The transfer of food energy from the producers, through a series of organisms
(herbivores to carnivores to decomposers) with repeated eating and being
eaten, is known as food chain.

➢ The food chain consists of four major parts, namely: The Sun, Producers,
Consumers, Decomposers

➢ In nature, basically two types of food chains are recognized – grazing food chain
and detritus food chain.

➢ Examples of food Chain

➢ grasses →rabbit →Fox

➢ Caterpillars → turtles → alligators

➢ Insect → fish → humans

➢ Bacteria → clams → octopus

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 Food Web
➢ Several interconnected food chains form a food web. A food web is
similar to a food chain but the food web is comparatively larger
than a food chain.
➢ Occasionally, a single organism is consumed by many predators or
it consumes several other organisms. Due to this, many trophic
levels get interconnected.
➢ A food web can be termed as the combination of many different
food chains and the relationship between organisms.

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Food Web

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 Difference between food chain and food web
Food Chain Food Web
A linear pathway showing the flow of A multitude of networks showing the flow
energy of energy
An organism of higher level trophic feeds An organism of a higher trophic level has
on a specific organism of lower trophic access to more members of a lower
level trophic level.
Does not affect the adaptability and It has a role in improving the adaptability
competitiveness of organisms. and competitiveness of an organism.

Removal of one group of organism Removal of one group of organism not at

disturbs the whole chain all disturbs the food chain.

It comprises of only one chain It comprises of many chains

It increases the instability of an ecosystem It increases the stability of an ecosystem

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Grazing food chains:

It starts from the green plants that make food for herbivores and herbivores in turn
for the carnivores. Ecosystems with such type of food chain are directly dependent
on an influx of solar radiation. This type of chain thus depends on autotrophic
energy capture and the movement of this captured energy to herbivores.

Detritus food chain:

The detritus food chain includes different species of organisms and plants like algae,
bacteria, fungi, protozoa, mites, insects, worms and so on. The detritus food chain
begins with dead organic material. The food energy passes into decomposers and
detritivores, which are further eaten by smaller organisms like carnivores.
Carnivores, like maggots, become a meal for bigger carnivores like frogs, snakes and
so on. Primary consumers like fungi, bacteria, protozoans, and so on are detritivores
which feed on detritus.

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 Ecological Pyramid
➢ Charles Elton developed the concept of the pyramid of numbers. Later,
G.Evylen Hutchinson and Raymond Lindeman developed the idea of the
pyramid of energy or productivity.

➢ An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship

between the different living organisms at different trophic levels. This,
relationship is expressed in terms of number, biomass or energy

➢ It can be observed that these pyramids are in the shape of actual pyramids,
with the base being the broadest, which is covered by the lowest trophic
level, i.e., producers. The next level is occupied by the next trophic level, i.e.,
the primary consumers and so on.

➢ The three types of ecological pyramids that are usually studied are

(a) pyramid of number;

(b) pyramid of biomass and

(c) pyramid of energy.

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(a) Pyramid of Number;

➢ In this type of ecological pyramid, the number of organisms in each trophic

level is considered as a level in the pyramid. The pyramid of numbers is
usually upright except for some situations like that of the detritus food chain,
where many organisms feed on one dead plant or animal.

Figure: Pyramid of numbers in a grassland ecosystem. Only three top-carnivores

are supported in an ecosystem based on production of nearly 6 millions plants

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(b) Pyramid of Biomass:

A pyramid of biomass shows the relationship between biomass and trophic level
by quantifying the biomass present at each trophic level of an ecological
community at a particular time. Typical units are kilograms per square meter, or
calories per square meter. The pyramid of biomass may be "inverted“ (the
biomass of fishes far exceeds that of phytoplankton

Figure: Pyramid of biomass shows Figure: Inverted pyramid of biomass-small

decrement in biomass at higher trophic standing crop of phytoplankton supports
levels large standing crop of zooplankton 47
(c) Pyramid of Energy:

Pyramid of energy is the only type of ecological pyramid, which is always upright
as the energy flow in a food chain is always unidirectional. Also, with every
increasing trophic level, some energy is lost into the environment. It follows 10%
law in which energy is transferred from one trophic level to the other, only 10%
energy from the organic matter is passed on.

Figure: An ideal pyramid of energy. Observe that primary producers convert only
1% of the energy in the sunlight available to them
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Importance of Ecological Pyramid

• The importance of ecological pyramid can be explained in the following points:

• They show the feeding of different organisms in different ecosystems.

• It shows the efficiency of energy transfer.

• The condition of the ecosystem can be monitored, and any further damage can be
prevented.

Limitations of Ecological Pyramid

• More than one species may occupy multiple trophic levels as in case of the food web.
Thus, this system does not take into account food webs.

• The saprophytes are not considered in any of the pyramids even though they form an
important part of the various ecosystem.

• These pyramids are applicable only to simple food chains, which usually do not occur
naturally.

• These pyramids do not deliver any concept in relation to variations in season and climate.

• They do not consider the possibility of the existence of the same species at different
levels. 49
 Balanced Ecosystem
• A balanced ecosystem signifies a habitat which is sustainable. It consists of
animals, plants, microorganisms and more which depend on each other and
their surroundings.

• These ecosystems exhibit resourceful energy and material cycling. It also

displays interconnectedness amid primary producers and predators.

• An ecosystem is balanced d when the natural animal and plants and non living
components are in harmony, i.e., there is nothing to disturb the balance. ln
aquatic ecosystem rocks are needed for shelter and plants provide oxygen for
fish. With increasing pollution, change in migratory patterns and rise of human
population, many ecosystems are in danger of losing that harmony.

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 Effect of Human Activities on Environment
• Unquestionably we are entering the Anthropocene
• Human activities impact the physical environment in many ways:
overpopulation, pollution, burning fossil fuels, and deforestation. Changes
like these have triggered climate change, soil erosion, poor air quality, and
undrinkable water.
• Land use changes are responsible for 15 – 20 % of current carbon dioxide
emission.
• Human activities have increased the concentration of methane and
nitrous oxide to about 145 % and 15 %, respectively, above what would be
present naturally.
• Today about 50% of the world’s land soils are subject to direct
management by humans.
• The various human activities, impacting on environment, are food, Shelter,
Housing, Transportation, Agriculture, Mining, Industrialization

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 Food Requirement
• Food is any substance that is usually composed of carbohydrates, fats,
proteins and water that can be eaten or drunk by an animal or human for
nutrition or pleasure. Items considered food may be sourced from plants,
animals or other categories such as fungus or fermented products like
alcohol.
• Due to climatic or topographic conditions, only 40 % of the total area of
the world can ever be used for cultivation of crop. Present-day agricultural
largely depend upon modern technological factors like the use of
improved seeds, chemical fertilizer, pesticides and irrigation.
• Many cultures have diversified their foods by means of preparation,
cooking methods and manufacturing.
• Food safety is also a concern with food borne illness claiming many lives
each year.
• During the last 50 years, global grain production has increased almost
three times thereby increasing per capita production by about 50%. But,
at the same time, population growth has increased at such a rate in less
developed countries that it outstripped food production. Every year 40
million people (50% of which are young children between 1-5 years) die
because of undernourishment and malnutrition.
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 Shelter and House
• Where a person lives matters since both natural and built environments
influence health. It creates the context for determinants of health such as
income, employment, social networks and personal behaviors.
• Overcrowding and poorly ventilated houses can also increase
susceptibility to disease.
• The way in which a house is built, maintained and used has a significant
and immediate impact on the environment. The location of any new
development and its relationship to the existing developments are
important in minimizing its effect.
– Use of Non-renewable Resources
– Energy Consumption
– Water Consumption
– Neighbourhoods
– Consumer Information

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 Agriculture
• The impact of agriculture on biodiversity - genetic, species, and ecosystem has
emerged as an important environmental issue.
• Agriculture has the potential to act both as a source and as a sink for several of
the atmospheric greenhouse gases that are believed to be responsible for
climatic changes.
• Agricultural activities relate to greenhouse gas concentrations in the following
ways:
– soils are an important natural source of and reservoir for carbon;
– methane is emitted from livestock and rice cultivation;
– nitrous oxide is released from nitrogen fertilisers; and
– carbon dioxide is released from the burning of fossil fuels in farming activities.
Transportation
• The relationships between transport and the environment are
multidimensional. !transportation became an important dimension of the
concept of sustainability, which is expected to become the prime focus of
transport activities in the coming decades
• Vehicle emissions affect people’s health and a recent study says each year
vehicle air pollution led to 74,000 deaths in a year
• On the basis of emission levels per passenger, the car with a single occupant
emits the highest levels of nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide.
• It is estimated that the amount of oil leaked from motor vehicles and washed
into lakes, rivers, and groundwater is six times the annual volume of oil spills.

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 Industrialization and Mining
• Industry is essential for the development of a country and the prosperity of its
people. But industrial processes and the production, transformation and final
use of energy causes major problems
• Worldwide totals of hazardous wastes generated by industry are impossible to
estimate since many countries differ over definition and very little information
is available. Industrial countries probably generate annual total of 350 million
tones of hazardous wastes.
• Safe disposal of these is an increasing problem and industrial accidents, such
as those of Bhopal gas tragedy (India), Chernobyl accident (Ukraine) , etc. ,
often have tragic environmental consequences.
• Mining is generally very destructive to the environment. The extraction of
metals is a violent process which inevitably has a great impact on the
environment
• Mining is the extraction of minerals and metals from the Earth. Manganese,
tantalum, cassiterite, copper, tin, nickel, bauxite (aluminum ore), iron ore,
gold, silver and diamonds are some examples of what is mined
• Mining is responsible for about just 4-7% of the world's energy consumption

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 Effect on the Environments due to Human Activities
• Deforestation:
– Deforestation refers to the clearing of trees from a forest, which is then converted into non-
forest use. Deforestation can include forest land being turned into farmland, ranches, or for
public usage and urbanization.
– Chopping down trees to increase land availability due to an increase in population and bringing
up new industries has led to an ecological system imbalance, leading to a decrease in oxygen
levels.
• Water Pollution:
– The presence of an excessive amount of toxins in water bodies is referred to as water
pollution.
– Industrial effluents and sewage are directly released into the rivers, increasing this pollution.
Seas and oceans also sometimes face oil spills, which have long-term Effects on water, leaving
it inhospitable to aquatic life.
• Air Pollution:
– The presence of an excessive amount of toxins in the air is referred to as air pollution.
Overpopulation has caused a great deal of air pollution, especially due to the use of vehicles
for transport. Harmful factory gases are released into the atmosphere, forcing us to breathe air
that contains toxic substances and pollutants, which contribute to different medical conditions,
including respiratory and cardiovascular disorders

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• Global Warming:
– Global warming refers to the rapid rise in Earth's average surface temperature over the
past century, mainly due to the greenhouse gasses released by people burning fossil fuels
necessary for industrialization.
– It results in the melting of ice caps and therefore increases the sea levels triggering
tsunamis, cyclones, and other natural calamities.
• Habitat Loss:
– Wildlife conservation is becoming tougher because their natural habitat is constantly
being threatened and destroyed. Water pollution and deforestation are the main reasons
for habitat loss. Deforestation may give rise to abundant land for Humans but leaves
animals homeless.
• Extinction:
– Human Activities are triggering extinction on an unprecedented and mass scale. The
destruction of natural habitats, Environmental hazards, global warming, poaching,
pollution, and deforestation are some of the leading causes of this tragedy.
• Acid rain:
– It results when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into the
atmosphere and transported by wind and air currents. The SO2 and NOX react with water,
oxygen and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. These then mix with water
and other materials before falling to the ground. The major sources of SO2 and NOX in the
atmosphere are:
• Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. Two thirds of SO2 and one fourth of NOX in the atmosphere come
from electric power generators.
• Vehicles and heavy equipment.
• Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.
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• The exploitation of Marine Life:
– our marine life is becoming endangered due to the massive scale of commercial
fishing. Water degradation continues to hamper the lives of marine organisms and
renders their longevity uncertain. In certain instances, when these fish are
ingested by Humans, it contributes to sickness and disease.
• Ozone Layer Depletion:
– The three oxygen atoms make up an ozone ring. While oxygen lends life to
organisms, ozone is a toxic gas. It may be dangerous on Earth, but ozone plays a
critical function in the various ambient layers of the atmosphere.
– UV rays are emitted by the sun, causing harm to animals, specifically skin cancer in
Humans, and hence are harmful. Ozone is preventing such UV radiation from
entering the planet, thus protecting all of us from UV damage. Over the years,
however, this defensive layer has been eroding across the world.
– A dramatic depletion was discovered back in the 1980s due to the CFCs
(chlorofluorocarbons) used in refrigerators and fire extinguishers. This is why
production firms are now mandated to produce CFC-free devices around the
world.

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 Environment Impact Assessment
• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a tool that seeks to ensure sustainable
development through the evaluation of those impacts arising from a major activity
(policy, plan, program, or project) that are likely to have significant environmental
effects.
• It is anticipatory, participatory, and systematic in nature and relies on multi-
disciplinary input.
• The International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA) defines an environmental
impact assessment as "the process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and
mitigating the biophysical, social and other relevant effects of development proposals
prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made.“
• In India, EIA was made mandatory in 1994, under the Environmental Protection Act of
1986 with the following four objectives:
– Predict environmental impact of projects;
– Find ways and means to reduce adverse impacts;
– Shape the projects to suit local environment; and
– Present the predictions and options to the decision-makers.
• The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC) notified new EIA
legislation in September 2006.
– The notification makes it mandatory for various projects such as mining, thermal power plants, river
valley, infrastructure (road, highway, ports, and airports) and industries including very small
electroplating or foundry units to get environment clearance.
– However, unlike the EIA Notification of 1994, the new legislation has put the onus of clearing projects
on the state government depending on the size/capacity of the project.
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Project Proposal Any proponent embarking on any major development project shall
notify IAA (Impact Assessment Agency) in writing by the submission
of a Project proposal.
Screening The project plan is screened for scale of investment, location and
type of development and if the project needs statutory clearance.
Scoping: The project’s potential impacts, zone of impacts, mitigation
possibilities and need for monitoring
Collection of baseline data Baseline data is the environmental status of study area.

Impact prediction Positive and negative, reversible and irreversible and temporary
and permanent impacts need to be predicted which presupposes a
good understanding of the project by the assessment agency.

Mitigation measures and EIA The EIA report should include the actions and steps for preventing,
report minimizing or by passing the impacts or else the level of
compensation for probable environmental damage or loss.
Public hearing On completion of the EIA report, public and environmental groups
living close to project site may be informed and consulted.
Decision making Impact Assessment Authority along with the experts consult the
project-in-charge along with consultant to take the final decision,
keeping in mind EIA and EMP
Monitoring and The various phases of implementation of the project are monitored.
implementation of EMP
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Environment Impact Assessment

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 Sustainable Development
• "Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present,
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs.“
• "There's enough in the world to meet the needs of everyone but there's not
enough to meet the greed of everyone".

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 Sustainable Development
The necessary conditions for achieving sustainable development are:
• Social Equity: There should be an equilibrium condition in the society among the
same generation within and between nation (intra-generation equity) and
between two different generations (inter-generation equity) . We should
handover a safe, healthy and resourceful environment to our future generations.
• Economical Equity: The technology should address to the problem of the
developing countries, producing drought tolerant varieties for uncertain climates,
vaccines for infectious diseases, clean fuel for domestic and industrial use. This
type of technological development will support the economic growth of the poor
countries and help in narrowing the wealth gap and lead to sustainability.
• Ecological Equity: If any development process protects our biodiversity,
decreases the rate of soil erosion and increases the forest cover area that brings
the ecological security.

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 Objectives of Sustainable Development
A primary goal of sustainable development is to achieve a reasonable
and equitably distributed level of economic well-being that can be
perpetuated continually for many human generations. It also implies
using renewable natural resources in a manner that does not
eliminate or degrade them or otherwise diminish their usefulness for
future generations. The main objectives are listed below:
1. It should protect our biodiversity;
2. It should prevent soil erosion;
3. It should slow down the population growth;
4. It should increase forest cover;
5. It should cut off the emissions of CFC, SOx, NOx and C02;
6. It should reduce waste generation;
7. It should eliminate poverty and deprivation; and
8. It should bring benefits to all.

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 Unsustainable to Sustainable Development
• There are few measures by adopting we can convert a
unsustainable development to sustainable development.
They are as follows:
– By using appropriate technology which is locally adoptable,
eco-friendly, resource efficient and culturally suitable
– By adopting reduce, reuse and recycle approach
– By prompting environmental education and awareness
– protection of environment and conservation of natural
resources by reducing excessive demand.

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