WATER-CEMENT RATIO

The water-cement ratio (w/c) is one of the major factors but not the only one influencing the
strength of concrete. It is responsible mainly for the porosity of the hardened cement paste.
Water-cement ratio is the water used to the quantum of cement in the mixture by weight.
For proper workability the w/c ratio varies from 0.4–0.6. However, maximum strength is
derived at w/c = 0.4 at which minimum capillary cavities are expected to form. It may be noted
that for complete hydration of cement under controlled conditions the water requirement is about
38 per cent. When it is decreased to less than 0.4 there is improper consistency and workability
of cement and honeycombed structure. However, concrete compacted by vibrator displays higher
strength even up to w/c = 0.3 at w/c ratio more than 0.6, the increase in volume of hydrated
products will not be able to occupy the space already filled with water. Hence, porosity increases
and strength decreases. In arriving at the w/c ratio values it is assumed that aggregates are
saturated with the surfaces in dry condition. Suitable adjustments should be made for dry
aggregates.
WORKABILITY
In fresh concrete—concrete in the plastic state, which can be moulded into desired shape—the
theoretical w/c ratio to meet the requirements of water for chemical combination with cement,
and to occupy the gel-space is about 0.4 for maximum strength. The w/c ratio used at site may
vary because of:
(a) The presence of free surface moisture in the aggregates
(b) The absorption of moisture by the dry or porous aggregates.
Because of the above limitations another characteristic workability, which is again a reflection
of w/c ratio, becomes important.
The theoretical w/c ratio used will not give the maximum strength because of the reasons
stated above. 100 per cent compaction of concrete will give maximum strength and this can be
obtained by increasing the w/c ratio. The water lubricates the concrete which can be compacted
at site with the specified efforts. The lubrication required for handling concrete without
segregation, for placing without loss of homogeneity, for compacting with specified effort and
for easy finish are indications of workable concrete.
As per Road Research Laboratory U.K. workability is defined as the property of concrete
which determines the amount of useful internal work necessary to produce full compaction. It
can also be defined as the ease with which concrete can be compacted 100 per cent with regard
to mode of compaction and place of deposition.
Workability is different than consistency. The latter indicates degree of fluidity or mobility.
A concrete with high consistency need not be workable for a particular job. For example a
concrete workable for foundation may not be workable for slab. Even for slab different
workabilities will be required for compaction by hand and that by vibration. It is because the
requirement of workability is less.
Factors affecting workability:
A workable concrete exhibits very little internal friction between the particles forming the
concrete and overcomes the frictional resistance offered by the internal surface of formwork as
well as that by the reinforcement contained in the concrete with just the amount of compacting
efforts forth coming. The factors helping concrete to achieve these are as follows.
Water content: The fluidity of concrete increases with water content. At site the normal
practice is to increase the water content to make the concrete workable which lowers strength.
In controlled concrete this cannot be resorted and even in uncontrolled concrete this should be
the last choice. However, in case if more water is added due to any reason the cement content
should be proportionately increased.
Mix proportion: Aggregate-cement ratio influences the workability to a large extent. The
higher the ratio leaner will be the concrete. In a lean concrete, paste available for lubrication of
per unit surface area of aggregates will be less and hence the workability is reduced.
Aggregate size: For big size aggregate the total surface area to be wetted is less, also less paste
is required for lubricating the surface to reduce internal friction. For a given water content big
size aggregate give high workability.
Shape of aggregates: For a given water content, round and cubical shape aggregates are
more workable than rough, angular or flaky aggregates, because the former type of aggregates
requires less cement paste for lubrication as these have less surface area and lesser voids. In
case of round aggregates frictional resistance is also small so less lubrication is required. For
this reason river sand and gravel provide greater workability than crushed sand and
aggregates.
Surface texture: A rough surface aggregate will have more surface area than a smooth round
textured aggregate. Hence, latter will be more workable for the reasons discussed above.
Grading of aggregates: Properly graded aggregates are more workable. It is so because such
a mix will have least voids and thus excess cement paste will be available as lubricant. This also
prevents segregation.
Admixtures: Air entrained concrete is more workable. It is so because air forms bubbles, on
which the aggregates slide past each other increasing the workability. Another factor is that air
entraining agents are surface active and they reduce the internal friction between the aggregates.

Measurement of workability:
Slump test:
This method of test specifies the procedure to be adopted, either in the laboratory
or during the progress of work in the field, for determining the consistency of concrete where
the nominal maximum size of the aggregate does not exceed 38 mm.
Apparatus:
 A slump cone
 Tamping rod
 Measuring tape
 trowel
 straight edge

Procedure:
 The internal dimensions of the mould are bottom diameter = 200 mm, top diameter = 100
mm, and height = 300 mm.
 The mould is filled in with fresh concrete in four layers, each approximately one-quarter
of the height and tamped with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod.
 The strokes are distributed in a uniform manner over the cross-section and for the second
and subsequent layers should penetrate into the underlying layer. The bottom layer is
tamped throughout its depth.
 After the top layer has been rodded, the concrete is struck off level with a trowel or the
tamping rod, so that the mould is exactly filled.
  The mould is removed immediately by raising it slowly and carefully in a vertical
direction. This allows the concrete to subside and the slump is measured immediately by
determining the difference between the height of the mould and that of the highest point
of the specimen being tested.
 The slump measured is recorded in terms of millimetres of subsidence of the specimen.
Illustration:

Compacting factor test:

a better method than the slump test and is being extensively used for the determination of
workability these days, especially for very stiff concrete mixes. In this test, the maximum size of
the aggregate should not exceed 38mm. this test measures the degree of compaction obtained by
spending a known amount of energy in overcoming the internal friction of the concrete and this
is a measure of workability.
Procedure:
Apparatus:
Two inverted cone- shaped hoppers
A cylindrical container.

 The sample of concrete to be tested is placed gently in the upper hopper.

 The hopper is filled level with its brim and the trap-door is opened to allow the concrete
to fall into the lower hopper.
 The trapdoor of the lower hopper is opened, and the concrete is allowed to fall into the
cylinder.
 The excess of concrete remaining above the level of the top of the cylinder is then cut-
off. The weight of the concrete in the cylinder is then determined say Wp as the weight or
partially compacted concrete.
 The cylinder is refilled with concrete from the same sample in layers of approximately
50 mm, the layers being heavily rammed or preferably vibrated so as to obtain full
compaction and weighed say Wf
 The top surface of the fully compacted concrete is carefully struck off level with the top
of the cylinder.
 Compacting factor is defined as the ratio of the weight of partially compacted concrete to
the weight of fully compacted concrete.
Illustration:
V-B CONSISTOMERTER TEST.
V-B test is suitable for the measurement in the laboratory of workability of concrete
mixes of very low workability which are compacted by vibration and air entrained
concrete mixes.
The accuracy decreases with increasing sizes of aggregate and for maximum size over
20mm the results are doubtful value.
Apparatus:
 cylindrical container
 clamped
 vibrating table,
 cone
 funnel
Procedure:
 The consistometer consist of a cylindrical container clamped on a small vibrating
table, a cone of the same internal diameter as a slump cone is placed
concentrically in the container and a funnel fixed on top.
 The cone is filled with concrete in four layers, each tamped 25 times as in the
slump test.
 The funnel is removed and the top levelled off.
 The cone is then lifted out and a transparent disc lowered onto the subsided
concrete. The slump may be measured if required.
 Vibration is then started and the remoulding of the concrete in the container is
observed through the transparent disc.
 The time in seconds is recorded until the whole surface of the transparent disc is
covered with cement grout which is taken to be the moment when full compaction
is attained.
 The workability by this method is defined as the time seconds measured above
and reported as V-B Degree.
 VALUES OF WORKABILITY FOR DIFFERENT PLACING CONDITIONS OF
CONCRETE.
Degree of Slump(mm) Compacting Vee-Bee
workability factor degree Uses
(sec)
Extremely
low(very stiff) 0 0.65-0.7 >20 Precast paving slabs
Very low 0-25 0.7-0.8 12-20 Roads(power vibrator)
( stiff)
Low 25-50 0.8-0.85 6-12 Mass concreting, light reinforced
(stiff plastic) section, roads (hand vibrator)
Medium 50-100 0.85-0.95 3-6 Flat slabs, heavily reinforced
( plastic) sections, RCC sections (manual
vibrator)
High 100-175 0.95-1 0-3 RCC with congested
( flowing) reinforcement(can not be vibrated)
 ADMIXTURES FOR CONCRETE:
Admixtures are the materials other than three basic ingredients of concrete. Namely
cement, aggregates and water added to the concrete mix before or during mixing to
improve certain of its properties in fresh and hardened state.
the properties commonly modified are rate of hydration or setting time, workability, air
entrainment. etc
Note:
i. An admixture should be employed only after appropriate evaluation of its effect
on concrete.
ii. Degree of control must also be exercise to ensure proper quantity of the admixture

FUNCTIONS OF ADMIXTURES
 To accelerates initial set of concrete (to speed up the rate of strength development at early
ages)
 Increase durability of concrete.
 Resistance to freezing and thawing.
 Control expansion caused by the aggregate alkalis reaction.
 Reduce segregation in growth
 Strengthen the bond between the old and new concrete faces and that between
reinforcement and concrete.
 Increase resistance to chemical attack.
 Inhabit corrosion of concrete
Classification of admixtures
Admixtures may be classified as;
 Accelerators
 retarders
 workability agents
 water proofers
 surface active agents
 pozzulanas
Accelerators
Accelerators normally reduce the setting time, accelerates the rate of hydration of cement and
consequently the rate of gain of strength.
Examples are;
sulphate with an exception of calcium sulphate, alkali, carbonate, aluminates and silicates,
aluminum chloride, calcium chloride, sodium chloride sodium and potassium hydroxide etc.
note: calcium chloride when added upto 2% by weight of cement acts as an accelerator but on
increasing the proportion, acts as retarder.
Retarders:
Retarders normally increase the setting time and thus delay the setting of cement. Since this
reduce the rate of hydration, more water is available and better is the workability.
Retarders increase the compressive strength under freezing and thawing.
Examples are;
calcium sulphate, starch, cellulose, ammonium, sugar, ferious and ferric chloride carbohydrates
etc.
Addition of 0.2% of suger by mass retarders, leads to the hydration of cement to such an extent
that the final set may not take place even for 72hours
Also an addition of 0.1% suger by mass of cement rises strength of cement at 3days and
increases the 28days strength by 30%
Note: retarders are very important in the situations where grouting is to be done for the voids
behind the concrete arch, tarnell lining etc.
they also ensure better bond between successive lifts in concrete construction.
Water proofer:
Cement mortar or concrete should be impervious to water under pressure and should also have
sufficient resistance to absorption of water.
The concrete can be made water resistant with the additives which may be water repellent type or
pore filling type.
Examples of water repelling types
 sody and potush soaps are chemically active,
 calcium soap
  vegetable oil
 fats,
 Waxes
 coal tar residue are chemically active
Examples of pore filling materials
 Alkaline silicate
 Zinc sulphate
 Calcium chloride etc

Finely divided workability agent:

These increase the workability by increasing the amount of paste in concrete and hence the
cohesiveness. If used in excess, quantity of water has to be increased which causes cracking and
loss of strength. eg. Lime, bentorite, chalk etc.
Bleeding agents: To check bleeding, paraffin wax at about. 0.2–0.75 per cent by mass of
cement or air entrainment is used. The latter is more effective but requires high degree of
control.
colouring agents: used in concrete work are mainly raw umber (brown), ferrous oxide (black),
red oxide (red), and chromium oxide (green).
Air entraining agents:
The air intentionally introduced in the cement during its manufacture or during making concrete
is known as entrained air. It is different from entrapped air where the continuous channels are
formed, thus increasing the permeability. In the case of entrained air, the voids formed are
discontinuous and are less than 0.05 mm in diameter. Air entrainment increases workability, and
resistance of concrete to weathering. The possibility of bleeding, Segregation and laitance is also
reduced. However, there is some loss in the strength of concrete. The air content should be from
4 to 7%, by volume.
Functions of air entrainment.
 Air entrainment increases workability.
 It makes concrete resistant to weathering.
 Reduces bleeding, segregation and laitance.
According to the maximum size of aggregate used. The air entrainment may be done by;
  surface active agent
 chemical
 cement dispersing agent
Surface active agents:
These reduce the surface tension. An addition of 5% of air may increase the compacting factor
by 0.07 and corresponding increase of slump from 12-50mm.
Examples of surface active agents:
1. Natural wood resins and their soaps, of which vinsol resin is the best.
2. Animal or vegetable fats and oils such as tallow or olive oil and their fatty acids such as
stearic acid and oleic acids and their soaps.
3. Wetting agents such as alkali salts of sulphonated or sulphated organic compounds.
A well known trade material is Darex. Other trade names of this category are N. Tair,
Airalon, Orvus, Teepol, Petrosan and Cheecol.

Chemicals:
The addition of chemicals such as zinc or aluminum powder release gases.
Note: this method is not quite adoptable since it requires high control.
Dispersing agents:
These are surface active chemicals imparting electrostatic charges on the cement particles. This
causes cement particles to repel each other and thus prevent coagulation. Also small amount of
air is entrained in the concrete and workability is increased.
At the same time, the strength of concrete is being reduced. The most commonly used agent is
calcium lignosulphate.

Plasticizers:
Are organic or a combination of organic and inorganic substances, which allow a water reduction
for a given workability, or give higher workability at the same water content.
Plasticizers are principally surface active (surfactants). They induce a negative charge on the
individual cement particles such that the fine cement particles are dispersed due to inter
particle repulsion.
Fine cement particles being very small clump together and flocculate when water is added
to concrete. This ionic attraction between the particles trap considerable volume of water and
hence water required for workability of concrete mix is not fully utilised. Negative charges are
induced on the fine cement particles causing flocs to disperse and release the entrapped water.
Water reducing admixtures or plasticizers therefore help to increase the flow of the concrete
mix considerably.
Superplasticiziers:
Are hydrodynamic lubricants which impart high workability by reducing friction between the
grains or by reducing the amount of water to be added. They are improved version of plasticizers
interact both physically and chemically with cement particles. The mechanism of action of super
plasticizers is same as that of plasticizer.
Pozzolanas:
are siliceous materials which are themselves inactive but react, in the presence of
water, with lime to form compounds having cementitious properties. The examples of puzzolana
are lime, fly ash, burnt clay and blast furnace slag. Puzzolanas react with free lime in cement
and improve the durability of concrete, and reduce the rate of hardening of concrete, which is
the principal objection to its use.
Expansion Producing Admixtures: are used to counteract the drying shrinkage of concrete.
Granulated iron and chemicals are most effective
Bonding Admixtures: are used to join the old and the new concrete surfaces or between the
successive concrete lifts. The examples are synthetic latex emulsions—made from natural
rubber, synthetic rubber, polyvinyl chloride.