WEEK 7
DIFFERENT LENSES AND METHODS OF
FOCUSING
Ø Different types of lens in the camera
Ø Types of lenses according to focal length Ø
Types of lens aberrations
Ø Methods of Focusing
Types of LENSES according to the Type
of Image they Produce
1. CONVEX LENS
- Sometimes called a positive lens; the
glass or plastic surfaces bulge/thick
outwards in the center giving the
classic lentil-like shape.
- A convex lens is also called a
converging lens because it makes
parallel light rays passing through it
bend inward and meet (converge) at a
spot just beyond the lens known was
the focal point.
- Thicker at the center and thinner at the
sides.
2. CONCAVE LENS
- Also known as negative lens. Is
exactly the opposite with the outer
surfaces lens curving inward so it
makes parallel light rays curve
outward or diverge.
- sometimes called diverging lens.
- Thinner at the center and thicker at the
sides.
Types of LENSES according to Focal
Length
1. Normal Lens
- also known as Standard lens, one
which produces an image that
roughly matches what the human
eye sees, and which looks natural to the
viewer.
- It has an angle of view 45 to 75
degrees diagonally that a human
eye can comfortably view.
- The focal length of a normal lens is
approximately 35 to 70 mm.
2. Wide Angle Lens
- refers to a lens whose focal length is
substantially smaller than a normal lens.
- This type of lens allow more of the
scene to be included in the photograph,
which is useful in architectural ,interior
and landscape photography where the
photographer may not be able to move
farther from the scene to photograph it.
- The focal length of this approximately
any measurement less than 50 mm but
typically 28mm.
- a lens with a focal length of less than the
diagonal of the negative material. Equal
or Less than 35mm.
3. Telephoto Lens
- It has a longer focal length and
provides a close up image of a
distant subject.
- In contrast to the wide angle lens, the
telephoto lens covers a smaller field
of view and a shallower depth of field.
- Production of a flat composition, far
objects appear enlarged while near
object do not appear proportionally
large.
- The focal length of a telephoto lens
ranges from 60 to 1000 mm
c) Long or Telephoto lens – a lens with a focal
length of more than twice the diagonal of the
negative material. From 70mm up.

Special types of Lenses
1. Macro Lens
- the word macro was derived from a
Greek word which means to “enlarge”.
- In photographic terms, a macro lens is
designed with extended focusing
capabilities to shoot few inchefrom a
subject.
2. Zoom Lens
- Allows a quick adjustment to give a
wide or narrow field of vision. It can be
moved back and forth while other
elements stay in place which gives the
same effect as if the camera itself was
moving towards or away from the
subject.
3. A true Zoom lens also called wide or
narrow field of Parfocal lens – one that
maintains focus when its focal length
changes.
4. Varifocal lens
- A lens that loses focus during
zooming.
d) Zoom
- a lens with variable focal length that
can be quickly adjusted to varying
subject or image size.
LENS ABERRATIONS
In optics, the deviation from perfection
is called aberration. More precisely, an
aberration is a deviation of a ray from the
behavior predicted by the simplified rules of
geometric optics.
The primary rule referred to here is the
one that states that rays of light parallel to the
principal axis of a lens or curved mirror meet
at a point called the focus.
Lenses do not form perfect images, and a lens
always introduces some degree of distortion or
aberration that makes the image an imperfect
replica of the object.
Careful design of the lens system for a
particular application minimizes the aberration.
Severe types of aberration affect the image
quality.
1. SPHERICAL ABERRATIONS
- The focusing at different points of rays
passing through different parts of
spherical lens. It occurs because light
hitting the outer part of the lens is bent
more sharply and comes to a focus
sooner than passing through the middle.
- The image is blurred
2. CHROMATIC ABERRATIONS
- The failure of different colored light
rays to focus after passing through a
lens, focusing of light of different
colors at different points resulting in a
blurred image. In here, colored fringes
surround the image because light of
different colors is brought to different
focal points by a lens.
3. ASTIGMATISM
- The ability of the lens to bring
horizontal and vertical lines in the
subject to the same plane of focus in the
image. It occurs at the edge of
 image, the image appears elliptical or
cone-shaped because of an irregularity
in the curvature of lens.
4. COMA
- It occurs when light falling obliquely
on the lens and passing through
different circular zones is brought to a
focus at different distances from the
film plane. A spot of light appears to
have tail rather like a comet.
5. CURVATURE OF FIELD
- a curved, concave or saucer shaped
image of an object which has a flat
surface. The image distance is different
for different points of the object due to
their different distance from the axis.
6. DISTORTION
- inability to produce the same
enlargement in the image formed by the
edges of the lens as in the part formed
by the center of the lens.
6.1. BARREL DISTORTION
- image magnification decreases with
distance from the optical axis.
- The apparent effect is that of an image
which has been mapped around asphere.
Fisheye lenses, which take
hemispherical views, utilize this type of
distortion as a way to map an infinitely
wide object plane into a finite image
area.
6.2 PINCUSHION DISTORTION
- image magnification increases
with the distance from the optical axis. The
visible effect is that lines that do not got
through the centre of the image, like a
pincushion.
6.3 MUSTACHE DISTORTION
- A mixture of barrel and pincushion
distortion, sometimes referred to as a mustache
distortion or complex distortion. It starts out as
a barrel distortion close to the image center and
gradually turns into pincushion distortion
towards the image periphery, making horizontal
lines in the top half of the frame look like a
handlebar mustache.
7. FLARE / OPTICAL FLARE
- a result of double reflection from inner
lens surfaces. It exhibits self as a misty,
hazy or cloudy semi-circular path of
light.
8. MECHANICAL FLARE
- Bright spot on the film caused by
stray light from worn shiny parts of
the lens such as the stops, shutter, lens
mount or from inside the camera
itself.
9. LIGHT LOSS
- Most corrected lenses are coated with
a substance which will reduce one type
of flare and which will also increase
the optics inability to transmit light,
thus reducing light loss.
10. STRAY LIGHT
- It can be reduced or eliminated by
using the proper lens shade placed on
the front of the lens or shield.
TYPES OF LENS according to
their Degree of Correction for
Lens Aberrations
1. SIMPLE MENISCUS LENS
- found in simple or box camera
comprises of single piece of glass with
one side convex and other side
concave. It is uncorrected lens and
therefore suffers from inherent defects
of lenses.
2. RAPID RECTILINEAR LENS
- It is a combination of two achromatic
lens with almost the same focal length.
This is corrected from some kind of
lens defect but not an astigmatism.
3. ANASTIGMATIC LENS
- a lens which is free from astigmatism
or other types of lens defect such as
spherical aberration and coma.
4. ACHROMATIC LENS
- a lens which is partly corrected from
chromatic aberration and spherical
aberration. Achromatic lenses are
corrected to bring two wavelengths into
focus in the same plane.
5. PROCESS LENS
- a saucer-corrected lens for
astigmatism. It has a better color
correction and has the ability to
produce the best definition of image in
the photographs.
6. FIXED FOCUS LENS
- a lens used in all fixed focus
camera. Basically, it has a short
focal length and greater depth of
field.
LENS CHARACTERISTICS
1. Focal Length
- it is the distance measured from the
optical center of the lens to the film
plane when the lens is focused at
infinity position.
2. Relative Aperture
- The light gathering power of the lens is
expressed in the ƒ-number system. It is
otherwise called the relative aperture or
lens opening. By increasing or
decreasing the
ƒ-number numerically, it is possible to:
a) control the amount of light passing
through the lens
b) control depth of field
c) control the degree of sharpness due to
lens defects
a. Depth of Field
- it is the distance measured from the
nearest to the farthest object in
apparent sharp focus when the lens is
set or focused at a particular distance.
b. Hyperfocal Distance
- is the nearest distance at which a lens
is focused with a given diaphragm
opening, which will give the
maximum depth of field.
3. Focusing
- is the setting of proper distance in
order to form a sharp image. The lens
of the camera except those fixed
focused, requires focusing. A lens
may be focused by any of the
following:

a) Focusing Scale or Scale Bed
- a scale is usually found at the lens
barrel indicating pre-set distance in
feet or in meters. To focus the lens of
the camera, the distance of the object
to be photographed is measured
estimated, or calculated and the point
or marker on the lens barrels is
adjusted to corresponding number on
the scale.
b) Range finders
- is a mechanism that measures the angle
of the convergence of light coming
from a subject as seen from two
apertures.
Types of range finders:
1) Split Image
- through the range finder, the
image of an straight line in the
object appears to be cut into
halves and separated from each
other when the lens is not in
focus.
- When the images of the line
are aligned, the lens is in
focus.
2) Co-incident Image
- Through the eyepiece a single
image is seen double when the
subject is out of focus. Make
the image coincide and the
lens is in focus.
c) Ground glass
- is focused directly by observing the
image formed at the ground glass,
screen placed behind the taking lens. If
the image formed is blurry or
fuzzy, or not clear, the lens is out of
focus. Make the image sharp and the
lens is in focus.
d) Zone
- This is possible in wide-angle lens
only.
- There are only three setting for
focusing. One for close distance
(approximately 3 - 6 ft.) another for
medium distance (approx. 6 – 15 ft.)
and finally distant objects (approx. 15
ft. to ∞)
4. SHUTTER
- contraption or device used to block the
path of light passing through the lens
and exposing the sensitized material.
Generally there are two types of
shutters:
a. Central Shutters
i. one that is located near the lens
(usually between the elements
of the lens). It is made of metal
leaves and its action starts from
the center towards the side, then
closes back to the center.
b. Focal Plane Shutters
i. is located near the focal plane
or the sensitized material. It is
usually made of cloth curtain.
ii. It is action starts on one side
and closes on the opposite
sides.
WEEK 8 opaque “blades” called diaphragm.
CAMERA EXPOSURES When the blades are open, your camera
sensor will capture more light, whereas
3 PILLARS OF PHOTOGRAPHY as the blades progressively close, less
light will hit your sensor.
The exposure triangle is an analogy to explain
the main elements that affect the exposure in a Types of Aperture
photograph: aperture, shutter speed, and a. large aperture
ISO, and the way that these elements are i. is a wide opening of the
related. lens, which allows it to
capture more light. This
According to the exposure triangle definition, is also called low
all three elements must be in balance in ranging, since it’s
order to get a perfectly exposed photo. This related to low F-stop
often results in having an exposure value EV values, usually ranging
equal to zero when selecting the right metering from f/1.4 to f/4.
mode. If, after achieving such a balance, you ii. When you use the
need to change any of the settings that affect the largest aperture in
exposure, you will have to compensate by your lens, you’re
adjusting the other two settings to continue using a “wide-open”
maintaining the EV and the balance in the aperture.
exposure triangle.
b. small aperture
APERTURE i. is the opposite: a
- Aperture is one of the photography narrow opening of the
basics and, along with the ISO and lens blades that doesn’t
shutter speed, one of the three allow the passage of
components of the “Exposure much light. It’s also
Triangle.” called a high aperture,
- But aperture doesn’t just affect the since the F-stop values
exposure, it also plays a key role in related to it range from
other photography aspects, such as the f16 to f22.
depth of field, the sharpness, and
generally the final result of your image. ii. When you use the
- Aperture in photography is the opening smallest aperture in
of the camera lens, which is related to your lens, you’re
the amount of light that passes through using a “stopped
the camera lens to the image sensor. down” aperture.
- The aperture mechanism in the lens
that allows more or less light to come HOW APERTURE AND EXPOSURE ARE
in is formed of a series of RELATED
 As we anticipated in the introduction,
aperture affects exposure and plays a
fundamental role in determining, along with the
ISO and shutter speed, the optimal exposure in
an image.
This is the most important aspect of
aperture in photography. Depending on what
you want to capture, there are certain situations
where you shouldn’t change your ISO and
shutter speed; aperture will be the key to a
proper exposure.
With a fixed ISO and shutter speed, the
wider the aperture (or lower F-values), the
brighter your image will be, and the narrower
your aperture (higher F-values), the darker it’ll
be. Large apertures are also known as fast
apertures since they allow you to decrease the
exposure time, and small apertures are also
known as slow apertures, since they allow you
to increase the shutter speed.
SHUTTER SPEED
- Shutter speed in photography is the
time that the camera shutter is open
and, therefore, capturing and exposing
light.
- In film and digital cameras, the sensor
is covered by a thin “curtain” that
controls the amount of light that passes
through the lens. This “curtain” is
called the shutter.
- The shutter is a fundamental piece in
any camera, since it’ll determine the
final exposure time and the motion
that will be captured.
- One of the best photography tips for
beginners is to learn what shutter speed
is through practical exercises in which
you vary this setting in manual mode.
- Shutter speed is measured in seconds
and fractions of a second, following a
sequence like this:
- “…5″, 2″, 1″,½, ¼, 1/8, 1/15, 1/30, 1/60,
1/125, 1/250, 1/500…”
HOW TO MEASURE SHUTTER SPEED
In this way, considering that other
elements affecting exposure (aperture and ISO)
are set, the faster the shutter speed, the darker
the image will be, and the slower the shutter
speed, the brighter the image will be.
Sometimes there are limits to
raise/lower the ISO and to change the aperture,
so, in these cases, the shutter speed will be
essential for changing the exposure of the
photo. Besides, setting a slow shutter speed will
be essential in long exposure night photography
to increase the exposure of the image so that it
isn’t too dark.
UNDERSTANDING SHUTTER
SPEED AND MOTION
The second and most important effect of shutter
speed on photography is motion.
By using a slower or faster shutter speed, you’ll
be able to capture a more static or dynamic
image, something that is also known as motion
in photography.
SETTING SHUTTER SPEED ON A
CAMERA
To set the shutter speed on a camera, you can do
it through any of the following ways:
Manual: Shooting in manual mode (M), you can
manually set the shutter speed after the
ISO and aperture according to the exposure that
you’d like to shoot.
Automatic: Shooting in Aperture mode (A), you
can manually set the aperture and ISO, and the
camera will automatically adjust to the best
shutter speed.
In film cameras, the shutter speed button used to
be on the top right of the camera, which is where
you can find the camera modes on most modern
cameras.
Today, the shutter speed dial is usually on the
top right of the back of the camera.
Moving the wheel, you’ll decrease or increase
the shutter speed according to your camera
settings.
HOW TO DO SLOW SHUTTER SPEED
PHOTOGRAPHY
To do slow shutter speed photography, you must
adjust the basic camera settings to take a correct
exposure while using a long shutter speed.
If it’s during the day, set the Base ISO (Native
ISO where your camera produces the best
quality and no noise), a narrow aperture
(consider the side effect of diffraction if you
close down your aperture below F16 as
explained in our article on aperture), and
decrease the shutter speed.
In daytime slow shutter speed photography,
you’ll likely need Neutral Density filters to
reduce the light hitting the sensor, or you’ll
overexpose the image.
If it’s at night, increase the ISO according to the
limits of your camera, use a wide aperture to
capture as much light as possible, and set a slow
shutter speed
according to the external light and scene that
you want to achieve. In Milky Way
photography, for example, you can do a long
shutter speed photograph of 15-30 seconds.
HOW TO DO FAST SHUTTER SPEED
PHOTOGRAPHY
To do fast shutter speed photography, you’ll
make the same adjustments, but your goal will
now be to use quick shutter speed.
The settings will depend entirely on the light
and the scene, but generally, you’ll have to use
wider apertures to capture more light and a
higher ISO to compensate and take the right
exposure.
SHUTTER SPEED PRIORITY MODE
The Shutter speed priority mode is the last way
to set the shutter speed on the camera.
Through this semi-automatic camera mode,
you’ll set a fixed shutter speed setting, and the
camera will automatically calculate the aperture.
This mode is not very common, but it might be
useful when you need to make sure that you’re
shooting at certain shutter speeds, like, for
example, when using the shutter speed for
shooting from an airplane.
HOW TO MEASURE SHUTTER SPEED
As we move from the left to the right, the
shutter speed will be faster, with, for example,
½ indicating half a second and 1/2000 being a
two-thousandth fraction of a second.
The distance between one shutter speed time and
another is called an exposure stop,
and increasing or reducing one stop in the
shutter speed will double or halve the total
exposure time.
Understanding how shutter speed is measured is
essential before talking about the types of
shutter speed in photography that you’ll see
now.
WHAT IS A FAST SHUTTER SPEED IN
DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY?
It’s essential to consider the terms fast shutter
speed and slow shutter speed to understand the
shutter speed effects in photography that you’ll
see below.
We speak about fast shutter speed when the
camera shutter is open for a very short time,
generally a length of time below 1/60th of a
second.
The fastest shutter speed in photography
depends on the camera, but in most of the
standard digital cameras on the market, it’s
1/4000th of a second.
Fast shutter speeds are generally used to reduce
time and freeze the moment. For example, in
wildlife photography, fast shutter speeds are
used to capture a bird flying in the sky.
WHAT IS A SLOW PHOTOGRAPHY
SHUTTER SPEED?
On the other hand, a slow shutter speed is when
the camera shutter is open for a longer time,
usually above 1/60th of a second.
The slowest shutter speed in cameras is usually
30 seconds, but you can increase
this time by using an even slower shutter speed
through the Bulb camera mode and a remote
shutter.
Slow shutter speeds are used to increase time
and capture motion. For example, you can set a
slow shutter speed to photograph the movement
of the water in a river.
Slow shutter speed photography is also known as
long exposure photography. For this type of
photography, you’ll need a tripod and
photography lens filters if you’re doing daytime
long exposure photography.
HOW SHUTTER SPEED AND EXPOSURE
ARE RELATED IN PHOTOGRAPHY
The first shutter speed effect on photography is
the change in exposure. By leaving the camera
shutter up or down for a specific period of time,
the sensor will capture more or less light, which
will translate into a brighter or darker exposure.
ISO
In photography, ISO is a very simple tool to
increase the brightness of your image in low light
conditions or when you need a faster shutter
speed, but you need to be careful since using a
high ISO sensitivity in photography will be
detrimental to the final quality of your images.
ISO in photography can be explained as a way
to increase the light information captured by the
camera sensor.
Historically, ISO in photography comes from the
acronym “International Organization of
Standardization” and a time when camera
manufacturers needed to homogenize the
sensitivity ratios in film cameras. Today, ISO
in digital cameras doesn’t follow the standards
of the ISO organization.
HOW ISO IN PHOTOGRAPHY WORKS
The main effect of ISO in photography is to
“artificially” increase the light captured by the
camera sensor, resulting in a brighter final
image.
In simple terms, ISO in photography works the
following way:
1. The camera sensor collects an amount of
light that depends on the aperture of the
lens and the time that the sensor is
exposed (shutter speed). This light
information is also known as “Signal” in
photography.
2. When this light (or signal) is received,
ISO plays a role in making an
interpretation of it. This interpretation
is related to the amplification of this
light.
3. When ISO amplifies this signal/light,
the final image will be brighter, but it
will progressively start generating more
digital noise as you increase the ISO,
compromising the final quality of the
image.
HOW TO USE CAMERA ISO IN
PHOTOGRAPHY
Considering the previous explanation of how
ISO affects photography, you’ll use the ISO to
decide the final settings in your image.
ISO should always be used in photography in
relation to the aperture and shutter speed. All
three form the exposure triangle
and you must aim at striking a balance
among the three by keeping in mind the light
of the scene and your photographic goals.
For example, considering a fixed aperture value,
if you want to increase the shutter speed from
1/2000th of a second to its double, 1/4000th,
you should increase your ISO one stop to
maintain a constant exposure.
WHEN TO USE A LOW ISO IN
PHOTOGRAPHY?
To capture quality images, the main goal is to
set a Native ISO as low as possible.
As mentioned before, as you start increasing the
ISO, you’ll progressively push the capacity of
your camera sensor to “create” a brighter
image, and this will translate into digital noise.
Base ISO is the lowest Native ISO level, and
it’s the ISO that you should try to use when
conditions are possible. In most cameras, Base
ISO is ISO 100.
ISO values like ISO 200 and ISO 400 are also
considered low ISO values in photography.
Examples where you should set a low ISO in
photography are all scenes with enough light
and where you don’t need a fast shutter speed.
WHEN TO USE A HIGH ISO IN
PHOTOGRAPHY?
However, it’s not all rainbows and butterflies,
and you’ll often find challenging
light situations where you’ll be forced to use a
high ISO in photography.
High ISO values in photography are mostly used
in low light conditions or situations where you
need a fast shutter speed.
Using a high ISO in night photography is one of
the most common situations for using high ISO,
since some scenes like photographing the Milky
Way will require you to push the limits of your
camera to capture a dark scene in a relatively
short exposure of time.
EXPOSURE
In photography, exposure is the amount of light
which reaches your camera sensor or film. It is
a crucial part of how bright or dark your
pictures appear. It is the product of illumination
and time. There are only two camera settings
that affect the actual luminous exposure of an
image: The Shutter Speed and Aperture
Exposure is computed by the use of light or
exposure meter. The amount of light coming
from a source or the amount of light being
reflected by the subject is measured by the light
meter. Proper adjustment therefore becomes
simplified.
FLASH PHOTOGRAPHY
FLASH UNITS - It is a device in photography
producing a flash or artificial light to help
illuminate a scene. A major purpose of a flash is
to illuminate the DARK SCENE. Other uses are
capturing quickly moving objects or changing
the quality of light. Most current flash units are
electronic,
having evolved from single-use flashbulbs
and flammable powders. Modern cameras
often activate flash units automatically.
Flash units are commonly built directly into a
camera. Some cameras allow separate flash
units to be mounted via a standardized
accessory mount bracket.
FILTERS
Are transparent or translucent glass or gelatin
elements that attach to the front of a lens. They
protect the camera lens, alter the characteristics
of light passing through the lens or add special
effects and colors to an image
is a homogeneous medium which absorbs and
transmits differentially light rays passing through
it.
FILTER FACTOR
A color filter will work in such a way that it
will transmit its own color and absorbs all
other colors.
By using filters in combination with black and
white films, the photographer can control the
tonal values to get a technically correct
rendition or to exaggerate, or suppress the tonal
differences for visibility, emphasis and other
effects. With color films, filters are used to
change the color quality of the exposing lights
to secure proper color balance with the film
being used.
Because filter subtract some light passing
through the lens, an increase in exposure time or
lens opening is necessary. The number of times
that the normal exposure must be multiplied is
called “filter factor”.

The filter factor value depends on the film type
and light source in addition to the absorption of
the filter.
USE OF FILTERS IN PHOTOGRAPHY
1. Clear Filter
- It is also known as window glass filters
or optical flats, are completely
transparent, and ideally perform no
filtering of incoming light at all. The
only use of a clear filter is to protect
the front of the lens.
2. UV Filter
- This is used to reduce haziness created
by ultraviolet light. AUV filter is
mostly transparent to visible light, and
can be left of the lens for nearly all
shots. UV filters are often used for lens
protection, much like clear filters.
3. Color Correction
- A major use is to compensate for the
effects of lighting not balanced for the
film stock’s rated color temperature.
The use of these filters has been greatly
reduced by the widespread adoption of
digital photography, since color balance
problems are now often addressed with
software after the image is captured, or
with camera settings as the image is
captured.
a. Color conversion filters - These
are with reference number which is yellowish
or orange, for lowering the color temperature of
the light. Filters with even numbers are bluish
and raise the color temperature. These set filters
change a
particular light source by the amount required
for a particular film type.
b. Color compensating filters -
These are best bought as gelatins of various
tints and strengths. These allow you to "fine
tune" adjustments towards warmer or colder
results due to batch variations, working
conditions, non-standard light sources.
4. Color subtraction filters
- These work by absorbing certain colors
of light, letting the remaining colors
through. They can be used to
demonstrate the primary colors that
make up an image. They are perhaps
most frequently used in the printing
industry for color separations, and
again, use has diminished as digital
solutions have become more advanced
and abundant.
5. Contrast enhancement
- Filters are commonly used in black and
white photography to manipulate
contrast. For example a yellow filter
will enhance the contrast between
clouds and sky by darkening the latter.
TYPES OF COLOR FILTERS
1. BIue filters
- These can be used effectively when
photographing blood in black and
white. When used outdoors, it will
make the sky or any blue objects
appear white in the photograph.
2. Green filters
- Used in place of the blue filter for
photographing blood often they work
better than the blue filter
3. Yellow filters
- It can be used to photograph white cars.
The details of the car will stand out.
Yellow filters also cut through haze to
certain extent and can be used with
good results to photograph an accident
on a hazy day.
4. Ultraviolet filter
- It is not a filter for ultraviolet
photography rather it is a filter which
screen out the violet end of the
spectrum. When placed in front of a
lens, it will not only improve most of
the police photographer's work but it
will also prevent his lens from being
scratched.
5. Special 18A deep purple filter
- It is the correct filter for ultraviolet
photography. These are often used in
photography, its short wavelength
gives better definition of the fine
details.
6. Polarizing filter
- It is used to cut down light
transmission. They do no otherwise
affect the color or tonal quality of the
scene. It polarizes reflected light from a
non-metallic surface such as water and
reduced reflection in the photograph. It
is the only filter than can increase the
blue saturation in the sky in a color
photograph.
GENERAL TYPES OF FILTERS
TYPES OF FILTER IN BLACK AND WHITE
PHOTOGRAPHY
1. Correction Filter
- used to change the response of the film
so that all colors are recorded at
approximately the relative brightness
values seen by the eye.
2. Contrast Filters
- used to change the relative brightness
values so that two colors which would
otherwise be recorded as nearly the
same will have decidedly different
brightness in the picture.
3. Haze Filter
- used to illuminate or reduce the
effect of serial haze
4. Neutral Density filter
- used for reducing the amount of light
transmitted without changing the color
value.
5. Polarizing filter
- used to reduce or eliminate
reflections on highly reflective
surfaces.
WEEK 9
CAMERA EXPOSURES
DARK ROOM
DARKROOM ESSENTIALS
1. Darkness
- The ideal darkroom is pitch black, but
total darkness is sometimes difficult to
achieve. Here’s a good rue of thumb for
the minimum amount of darkness
required – if you don’t see any light in
the room over a period of five minutes,
Its dark enough for normal usage.
2. Two separate working areas
Dry area – Near an electric outlet, you’ll
have the enlarger, tools, and paper.
Wet area – You’ll have the developing trays,
water, film developing tanks and chemicals.
3. White light
- Use it for negative selection, mixing
chemicals, cleaning up, inspecting
finished prints. Just be sure to turn it off
when handling unexposed film and
paper
4. Safe Light
- Photographic paper, unlike film, is
designed to be handled under certain
colored, dim lights without adversely
affecting the paper.
CHEMICAL PROCESSING
After the exposure of the film to light in the
picture taking or the photographic paper
during printing, the next step would
generally be chemical processing. In black and
white processing, the steps are development,
stop bath and fixation. In color processing, the
steps are color development, stop fix and
stabilizer.
BLACK & WHITE PROCESSING
1. DEVELOPMENT
- the process by which a latent image in
an emulsion is made visible. It is the
process of reduction. Exposed silver
halides are reduced to metallic silver.
There is a separate developer for film
(D-76) and another for paper (D-72
Dektol).
The factor that affects the
developing time are: agitation,
temperature, concentration of
chemicals, and exposure.
2. STOP BATH
- It halts the developer action in
appropriate moment. It also prevents the
contamination of the developer and
fixer from each other. An intermediate
bath between the developer and the
fixer. It is usually a combination of
water plus acetic acid or just plain
water. Primarily, its function is to
prevent the contamination of the two
chemical solutions.
3. FIXATION
- It makes the developed image
permanent when it is followed by a
thorough washing. In this processing
stage, the unexposed and
underdeveloped silver halide crystals
are dissolved and removed from the
emulsion of the photographic material.
The process
 of removing unexposed silver halide
remaining in the emulsion after the first
stage of development of the latent
image. The usual composition of an
acid fixing solution are a solvent for
silver halide known as hypo, anti-
staining agent like acetic acid, a
preservative like sodium sulfite and a
hardening agent like potassium alum.
FILM PROCESSING
It can be carried out in trays, tanks or
merchanized equipment. Panchromatic materials
must be handled in total darkness. Other
materials like blue films and panchromatic
printing papers are handled under a safelight.
EQUIPMENT FOR FILM PROCESSING
1. Tank or Tray
2. Developing Reel
3. Opener for Film Cartridge (pliers) –
Some 35 mm films have reusable
cartridge that can be snapped open by
hand but others can only be opened
with a pair of pliers.
4. Scissor
5. Thermometer
6. Timer
7. Funnel
8. Photographic Sponge
9. Film Clips for dying
10. Three glass or plastic bottles (gallon
size) for storing mixed solutions.
11. Three Beakers
Small format films like the 35 mm is best
developed in cylindrical daylight-developing
tank that accommodates a spiral reel. The
tank and the reel can be stainless steel or made
of hard plastic. These tanks usually have a light-
tight lid with provision for pouring solutions in
and out while covered so that only one tank is
required for the entire process.
Metal reels have a center clip of book to hold
one end of the film, the remaining length slips
into the grooves created by the spiral. Metal
reels come in a fixed size.
The plastic reel is loaded by simply pushing the
film into the spiral from the outer end. It has a
flange that moves with back and forth action
after the film had been engaged on the outside
guide slots, the back and forth movement feeds
it smoothly into the grooves. Plastic reel can be
adjusted to accommodate different film size.
TANK METHOD OF FILM DEVELOPMENT
1. Mix the developer, stop bath and the
fixer according to instructional
manuals. Then bring it to temperature
which is 20-21° C or
68-70° F.
2. In a dry area, lay out the film, opener,
scissor, reel and the tank so they can be
readily located in the dark.
3. In complete darkness, open the film
cartridge by simply prying off the cap
opposite the end, where the long spool
core protrudes. Extend the film then
remove it from the tips in the spool
core. Then reel it.
REELING PROCEDURE
 a. Hold the film with the emulsion side in
or down loosely in one hand while the
other hand holds the reel.
b. Engage the film's end at the ceter
clip or hook of the reel.
c. Slightly squeeze the film width by
pressing between the thumb and the
forefinger so it narrows just enough to
fit into the reel.
d. Turn the reel with the other hand to
pull the film onto the reel.
e. Do not apply excessive pressure with
the hand holding and squeezing the
film.
f. Let the film pass freely, it will
straighten out full width in the spiral
space of the reel
4. After the reeling of the film is done, place it
inside the daylight developing tank then cover
it. White light can now be opened. Remove the
lid cover of the tank and pour the film developer
slowly until the tank is full. Invert the tank then
agitate it for a few seconds. Timer should start
now. Intermittent agitation should be made
during the developing time. After 5-6 minutes,
pour out or drain the developer.
5. Put in the stop-bath, agitate the tank some
more and after 15-20 seconds drain out stop-
bath. Next is to pour in the fixing bath.
Agitation should also be done often and after
15 to 20 minutes, drain the fixer from the tank
Note: Used developer, stop-bath, and fixer can
be used again and again but instead of
pouring them back in the bottles of fresh or
unused solutions, pour them in a separate
container so it will not contaminate the fresh or
unused solutions.
6. Wash the negative for several changes or
preferably in running water for another
15-20 minutes.
7. Remove the negative from the developing
reel. Get the sponge and immerse it in water
then squeeze it to remove the excess water.
Wipe the negative with the sponge slowly to
remove the water adhering on the negative. This
must be done on both side of the negative. Water
that adheres on the surface of the negative can
cause watermarks if allowed to dry without
wiping.
8. Hang the negative to dry at a clean, dust free
place or better in a negative drier.
TRAY METHOD OF FILM DEVELOPMENT
1. The developer is placed on a tray
2. In total darkness, remove the film
from the cartridge then hold on end of
the film and immerse the film in the
developer in the tray making sure that
the film is thoroughly dipped until the
whole length of the film is evenly wet.
3. Timer will start now.
4. With see-saw or pulling up or down
motion, move the film from one end to
the other then back, continuously, until
the developing time of 4-5 minutes is
done.
5. Then transfer it to the stop bath for 10-15
seconds with the same motion.
6. Thereafter, place the film in the fixer and
execute same motion for about 5 minutes then
you can now open the white light.

7. Continue the fixing until the required time is

finished

8.Next will be the washing and drying of the

negative.

This developing procedure is actually not

recommended because the film has a long
contact with air during the procedure which can
cause aerial fog. Besides, it is more tedious and
tiring especially with a
36-exposurre film.
WEEK 10
PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING The basic or essential parts of an enlarger are:

General Types of Photographic Printing a. Baseboard and its vertical column

b. Lamphouse
CONTACT PRINTING c. Condenser or diffuser
- simplest and most economical method. d. Lens
Exposing photographic printing while it e. Focusing knob
is pressed in contact with the negative f. Red filter
being produced. g. Electrical cord or switch

PROJECTION PRINTING The essential accessories of an enlarger

- the image in a negative is optically are:
projected or enlarged onto a print
material for exposure to produce an a. Negative carrier
image. b. Easel or paper holder
c. Timer for consistent and repeatable
1. Contact Printing exposure

The procedure of exposing photographic NOTE :

printing while it is pressed in contact with the
negative being reproduced. This is the simplest
and the most economical method of
photographic printing.
In terms of print quality, it can surpass
enlargements in tonality because there is no
scattering of image forming lights as this can be
in projected beams of an enlarger.
There are different sizes of enlargers. The size of
the enlarger is dependent on the size of the
negative it is capable of accepting.
There is the 8mm microfilms, the 35 mm which
is now the most common and popular, the 120
mm, or the bigger negative sizes like “4x5”
The most common light sources for
enlargers are:

It usually looks sharper because there is no lens a. Tungsten lamp

in the printing system to add its aberrations in
the print making process and also because
details that may be slightly out of focus are not
enlarged so the unsharpness is not apparent.
2. Projection printing
b. Halogen lamp
c. Mercury vapor lamp
d. Flourescent lamp sometimes referred to as
“cold light” because it is somewhat diffused
illumination. This is generally used in portrait
work.

This type of printing where the image in a Equipment Used in Photographic

negative Is optically projected or enlarged onto Enlarging and Printing
a print material for exposure to produce a
picture image. The main equipment used is the a. Enlarger
enlarger.

b. Metal, plastic or bamboo tongs preferably
with rubber ends to hold the prints.
c. Three plastic or metal trays - one each for the
developer, stop-bath and the fixer. The size of
the tray is determined by the largest print size.
d. Bigger tray or tank for washing prints
e. Three galloon size bottles for storing
mixed solution.
f. Three beakers
g. Clips for drying
h. Paper cutter
i. Timer
j. Rubber (surgical) hand gloves
Enlarging Procedures for Black&White
Negative
1. Clean both sides of the negative then
place it in the negative carrier with the
emuIsion (dull side) facing the lens of the
enlarger or downward position. Insert the
negative in the enlarger.
2. Adjust the masking guides of the easel in
accordance with the intended size to be printed.
3. Turn on the red light (safelight) then turn
off the white light.
4. Switch on the enlarger then adjust the lens
of the enlarger to its widest aperture.
This will allow the brightest image on the easel.
5. Adjust focusing by rotating the focusing
knob. For desired size of the image, adjust the
elevating knob. For bigger magnification, pull
the enlarger down, then tighten the elevating
knob securely. Focus may now be finely
readjusted.
6. Switch off the enlarger's light. Close down
the lens aperture two or three times from its
optimum aperture.
7. lf this is the first time that the negative is
being printed, make a series of test strips or trial
exposures on strips of photographic papers
exposed at different exposure time generally 2
seconds interval each. Make sure that the
photographic papers are placed in the easel
emulsion side up when making the exposure.
8. Process the test strips by immersing it in the
developing solution for 1 to 1 % minutes. Slip
the exposed photographic paper into the
developing solution to wet them evenly. Agitate
it continuously by either moving the print or by
rocking the tray. When the developing time is
finished, lift off the print, drip dry it before
transferring it to the next solution. Then transfer
it to the stop-bath for 10 to 15 seconds then in
the fixing bath for a minute or so. Examine the
test strip under a white light to determine which
of the exposure time is the best and if the
contrast of the print is alright. Otherwise, repeat
the exercise whether shorter or l onger exposure
time is needed.
9. When the right exposure had been
selected, make a full print. Process it then
evaluate the print for over-all quality.
Consider for possible cropping, or local
exposure control.
10. Current fixing bath only require 10-15
minutes fixing time. Formerly it was 20 to 30
minutes.
11. Wash the prints in running water for
another 20-30 seconds
12. Dry the prints
Sodium Sulfite – 100 grams
Borax (granules) – 2 grams
Water to make - 1 liter
Dektol – Paper Developer
Water 52 c to 125 f– 500 ml Elon
– 311 grams Hydroquinone – 12
grams Sodium Sulfite – 4.5 grams
Sodium Carbonate – 67.5 grams
Potassium bromide – 1 gram Water to
make - 1 liter

Developer Formulation
Stop-Bath
The typical components of - can be plain water only with 28%
black-and-white developer are: glacial acetic acid

1. Solvent (water) Fixing Bath Formula

2. Developing agent The Chemical components of a fixing

bath are :
3. Preservative
Water Dissolving
4. Accelerate or Activator agent
Preservatives
5. Restrainer Neutralizers
Hardener
Various chemicals can serve this function.
Chemicals chosen are determined whether it is
slow or fast acting, produce high, normal, or A typical fixer formula :
low contrast, achieves maximum emulsion
speed, creates the fine grain or acts in a number Water - 600 ml
of ways. Hypo (sodium thiosulfate) – 240 grams
Sodium sulfite ( anhydrous) – 15 grams
Acetic Acid (28%) – 480 ml
CHEMICAL FORMULA Boric Acid (crystals) – 7.5 grams Potassium
Alum (fine granular) - 15 grams Water to
D-76 Film Developer Formulation make – 1 liter

Water – 750 ml Elon The fixing bath is recommended generally for

– 2 grams both films and photographic papers.
Hydroquinone – 5 grams
WEEK 11
DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES USED IN
PHOTOGRAPHY
ULTRAVIOLET - PHOTOGRAPHY
Photographs made with ultraviolet radiation can
reveal bruises or scars not visible on the surface
of the skin , in some cases long after visible
healing has completed. These can serve as
evidence of assault. Ultraviolet imaging can be
used to detect alteration of documents.
Some materials will absorb ultraviolet, while
others will reflect these radiations. Some have
partial reflection. These effects can be recorded
photographically suing ultraviolet radiation.
Black and white films are sensitive to most
wavelengths of ultraviolet. By using a filter that
absorbs all visible light but passes ultraviolet, It
is possible to make photographic exposure with
just ultraviolet.
USES IN LAW ENFORCEMENT
1. Try ultraviolet photography after
visible light techniques and infrared
light tehniques fail (question
documents, etc.).
2. Fingerprints on multicolored
surfaces (dust with fluorescent
powder or ninhydrin).
3. Body secretions such as urine, semen
and perspiration often glow when
illuminated by ultraviolet light.
4. Money and other valuables can be
dusted or marked to identify thiefs.
PHOTOGRAPHIC NECESSITIES FOR
REFLECTED ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION
1. Illuminate the subject by means of a
radiation source that emits ultraviolet.
2. Exclude all visible light from the
camera by placing over the lens a
filter that transmits only ultraviolet
3. Record the image in the camera on the
film.
USE OF REFLECTIVE ULTRAVIOLET
PHOTOGRAPHY TO PHOTO-
DOCUMENT BRUISING TO CHILDREN
Reflective ultraviolet photography records the
reflection and absorption of long-wave UV light
by the subject matter excluding exposure of the
film by all visible light. Since UV light
penetrates deeper into the skin, the film will
pick up the image of a bruise or bite mark,
which has been absorbed too deep into the skin
to be able to be seen using visible light.
The time frame to obtain good results with this
technique has never been fully explored. The
earliest time in which these photos seem to
show any image, is shortly after the bruise or
bite mark is no longer visible. The longest time,
in which there is literature, is at least 5 months
after the injury. Photos taken using this
technique will not show bruises that are still
visible.
INFRARED - PHOTOGRAPHY
Infrared Photography is the recording of images
formed by infrared radiation.
Because infrared radiation is invisible, some
special techniques may be needed. But in
general, most of commonly required methods
are as simple as those of ordinary photography.
Police forces and members of the Public safety
can use infrared photography for crime
prevention and security purposes. Infrared
cameras have the capability to record in
complete darkness, they are very useful for
surveillance purposes.
Infrared techniques can be applied in the field or
in a laboratory environment. In some instances
the only opportunity to document the evidence is
in the field at the crime scene. Until recently the
only available option to the forensic
photographer involved infrared techniques that
used conventional film sensitive to wave lengths
of light in the infrared range of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Digital cameras can be used in some infrared
applications. Typically digital cameras come
from the manufacturer with a hot mirror filter or
a UV/IR cut filter installed in front of the sensor.
The purpose of this filter is to prevent ultraviolet
and infrared wavelengths from reaching the
sensor.
These wavelengths reduce the quality of color
images made in the visible light spectrum and
are therefore unwanted by most photographers.
Infrared radiation is found in many everyday
light sources used in photography. In some,
such as tungsten, photoflood, halogen, and
incandescent bulbs, heat generates a good deal
of the infrared radiation. The sun is a natural
source of light but is an irregular infrared source
since the rays shift according to the time of day.
A number of “alternate light sources”
specifically developed for forensic applications
can be
tunable in the range of near infrared wavelengths.
USES IN LAW ENFORCEMENT
1. Questioned Documents – used in
revealing tampered or most especially
in charred documents.
2. Aerial Photography – It can
enhance the contrast of the terrain.
Coniferous (darker) and deciduous
(lighter) growth is differentiated.
3. Surveillance Photography
4. Detection of gunshot-powder
burns, stains and irregularities in
cloth.
5. Detection of certain types of
secret writings
INFRARED LUMINISCENCE
PHOTOGRAPHY
Infrared luminescence photography can be
defined as a technique of focusing an infrared
image with a camera and lens onto an emulsion
or digital sensor sensitized to infrared radiation
to obtain a record of how the subject emits
luminescence in the infrared region when
illuminated with visible light.
INFRARED PHOTOGRAPHY SAMPLES
Given the proper setup, the forensic
photographer is now equipped to apply these
techniques to specific forensic applications. In
document examinations alterations and forgeries
can be detected. Differentiating between visibly
identical inks
and pigments is accomplished by observing
differences in the way they transmit or absorb
infrared radiation or whether or not they exhibit
luminescence. Infrared reflected and
luminescence photography can reveal writing,
printing, or other markings under obliterations on
documents