18CSE451T

Wireless Sensor Network

Unit – I

Dr.R.Kayalvizhi
Department of Networking and Communications
Introduction to computer and wireless sensor networks - Motivation
for a network of Wireless Sensor nodes - Sensing and sensors -
Challenges and constraints -
Node architecture - Sensing sub system -Processor sub system -
Communication interfaces-- prototypes - Application of Wireless
sensors -WSN Tools- Overview and Limitations -Contiki
–Introduction - Characteristics of Contiki WSN simulator
Adhoc Wireless Network

 Definitions Adhoc Wireless Network

A wireless ad hoc network (WANET) is a type of local area network (LAN) that is built
spontaneously to enable two or more wireless devices to be connected to each other
without requiring typical network infrastructure equipment, such as a wireless router or
access point.
In most cases, a PC, laptop or smartphone Wi-Fi interface is used to build an ad hoc
network

2
Motivation for a Network of Wireless
Sensor Nodes

 Definitions WSN
Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is an infrastructure-less wireless network that is
deployed in a large number of wireless sensors in an ad-hoc manner that is used to
monitor the system, physical or environmental conditions.

2
Introduction

q The miniaturization of computing and sensing technologies enables the

development of tiny, low-power, and inexpensive sensors, actuators,
and controllers.

q sensor nodes are already used in various applications such as Monitor

large geographic areas for modelling and forecasting environmental
pollution and flooding, collecting structural health information on bridges
using vibration sensors, and controlling usage of water, fertilizers, and
pesticides to improve crop health and quantity.
 Sensing and Sensors
 Sensors connect the physical world with the digital world
 It converts real-world phenomena into the format suitable for processing.
 Very large scale integration (VLSI), micro electromechanical systems
(MEMS), and wireless communications plays vital role in the development of
distributed sensor systems.
 Sensing: technique to gather information about physical objects or areas.
 Examples of sensors from biology: the human body
 eyes: capture optical information (light)
 ears: capture acoustic information (sound)
 nose: captures olfactory information (smell)
 skin: captures tactile information (shape, texture)
 An object performing such a sensing task is called a sensor.

3
 Sensors, Transducer and Actuators

 Sensor: A device that translates parameters or events in the physical world

into signals that can be measured and analyzed.
 Transducer: A device that converts energy from one form into another.
 “Sensor is a type of transducer that converts energy in the physical world
into electrical energy that can be passed to a computing system or
controller”
q wireless sensor and actuator network (WSAN) takes commands from
the processing device (controller) and transforms these commands that
will be given as input for the actuator for taking corrective action.
q Example:
q an actuator can be a valve controlling the flow of hot water,
q a motor that opens or closes a door or window,
q a pump that controls the amount of fuel injected into an engine.
WSAN - Sensing (Data Acquisition)

 Sensors capture phenomena in the physical world (process, system, plant)

 Signal conditioning prepare captured signals into the standard format for
further use (amplification, attenuation, filtering of unwanted frequencies,
etc.)
 Analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) translates analog signal into digital
signal
 Digital signal is processed and output is often given (via digital-analog
converter and signal conditioner) to an actuator (device able to control the
physical world)

4
 Sensor Classifications
q Sensors should be chosen for an application depends on the physical
property to be monitored.
q Ex: temperature, pressure, light, or humidity.
Physical property to be monitored determines type of required sensor

Type Examples

Temperature Thermistors, thermocouples

Pressure Pressure gauges, barometers, ionization gauges

Optical Photodiodes, phototransistors, infrared sensors, CCD sensors

Acoustic Piezoelectric resonators, microphones

Mechanical Strain gauges, tactile sensors, capacitive diaphragms, piezoresistive cells

Motion, vibration Accelerometers, mass air flow sensors

Position GPS, ultrasound-based sensors, infrared-based sensors, inclinometers

Electromagnetic Hall-effect sensors, magnetometers

Chemical pH sensors, electrochemical sensors, infrared gas sensors

Humidity Capacitive and resistive sensors, hygrometers, MEMS-based humidity sensors

Radiation Ionization detectors, Geiger-Mueller counters

5
 Other Classifications

 Power supply:
 active sensors require external power, i.e., they emit energy
(microwaves, light, sound) to trigger response or detect change in
energy of transmitted signal (e.g., electromagnetic proximity sensor)
 passive sensors detect energy in the environment and derive their
power from this energy input (e.g., Film photography, passive
infrared sensor – measure infrared light radiating from objects in
the proxiity)
 Electrical phenomenon:
 resistive sensors use changes in electrical resistivity (ρ) based on
physical properties such as temperature (resistance R = ρ*l/A)
Where ρ conductor’s electrical resistivity, l is the length of the
conductor and A is the area of the cross-section.

6
 Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)

 Multiple sensors (often hundreds or thousands) form a network to

cooperatively monitor large or complex physical environments
 Acquired information is wirelessly communicated to a base station (BS),
which propagates the information to remote devices for storage, analysis,
and processing

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Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) – Cont.

q Network applications require hundreds or thousands of sensor nodes,

often deployed in remote and inaccessible areas. Therefore, a wireless
sensor has not only a sensing component, but also on-board
processing, communication, and storage capabilities.
q Sensor node is not only responsible for data collection, but also for in-
network analysis, correlation, and fusion of its own sensor data and
data from other sensor nodes.
q Additional Supporting Technologies:
q Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers, allowing them to
accurately determine their position, It requires additional energy.
 History of Wireless Sensor Networks
 The military has been a driving force behind the development of wireless sensor
networks
 DARPA: Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency
 Distributed Sensor Nets Workshop (1978)
It focussed on sensor network research challenges such as networking
technologies, signal processing techniques, and distributed algorithms
 Distributed Sensor Networks (DSN) program (early 1980s)
 Sensor Information Technology (SensIT) program
 UCLA and Rockwell Science Center
 Proposed the concept of Wireless Integrated Network Sensors (WINS)
 Outcome is Low-power Wireless Integrated Microsensor (LWIM) (1996). This
smart sensing system was based on a CMOS chip, integrating multiple sensors,
interface circuits, digital signal processing circuits. wireless radio, and
microcontroller onto a single chip.

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History of Wireless Sensor Networks – Cont.

 UC-Berkeley Smart Dust project (1999)

 Focussed on the design of small sensor nodes.
 concept of “motes”: extremely small sensor nodes
 Berkeley Wireless Research Center (BWRC)
 The PicoRadio project (Rabaey et al. 2000) by the Berkeley Wireless
Research Center (BWRC) focuses on the development of low-power sensor
devices, whose power consumption is so small that they can power
themselves from energy sources of the operating environment, such as
solar or vibrational energy.
 The MIT μAMPS (micro- Adaptive Multidomain Power-aware Sensors) project
also focuses on low-power hardware and software components for sensor
nodes, including the use of microcontrollers capable of dynamic voltage scaling
and techniques to restructure data processing algorithms to reduce power
requirements at the software level (Calhoun et al. 2005).
 WSN Communication

 Characteristics of typical WSN:

 low data rates (comparable to dial-up modems)
 energy-constrained sensors
 IEEE 802.11 family of standards
 most widely used WLAN protocols for wireless communications in
general
 can be found in early sensor networks or sensors networks without
stringent energy constraints (low power)
 IEEE 802.15.4 is an example for a protocol that has been designed
specifically for short-range communications in WSNs
 low data rates
 low power consumption
 widely used in academic and commercial WSN solutions

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 Single-Hop versus Multi-Hop

 Star topology:
 every sensor communicates directly (single-hop) with the base station
 may require large transmit powers and may be infeasible in large
geographic areas
 Mesh topology
 sensors serve as relays (forwarders) for other sensor nodes (multi-hop)
 may reduce power consumption and allows for larger coverage
 introduces the problem of routing

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 Challenges in WSNs: Energy

 Sensors typically powered through batteries

 replace battery when depleted
 recharge battery, e.g., using solar power
 discard sensor node when battery depleted
 For batteries that cannot be recharged, sensor node should be able to
operate during its entire mission time or until battery can be replaced

 Energy efficiency is affected by various aspects of sensor node/network

design
 Physical layer:
 switching and leakage energy of CMOS-based processors

E CPU  E switch  Eleakage  C *

total
Vdd
2
 Vdd* Ileak
* t
Ctotal – total capacitance
Vdd – supply voltage
t – duration of computation
Lleak – leakage current
This leakage energy will be responsible for more than half the energy consumption 13
 Challenges in WSNs: Energy

 Medium access control layer:

 contention-based strategies lead to energy-costly collisions
 Nodes may attempt to access the medium at any time, potentially
leading to collisions among multiple nodes
 problem of idle listening
 Energy overhead and Delay incurred by the Collision and recovery
mechanism
 Some of the MAC protocols for sensor networks are contention free
 Access to the medium is strictly regulated, eliminating collisions
and allowing sensor nodes to shut down their radios when no
communication are expected

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 Challenges in WSNs: Energy

 Network layer:
 responsible for finding energy-efficient routes
 Requires transmission power, and available energy on relay nodes.
 Operating system:
 small memory footprint and efficient task switching
 Security:
 fast and simple algorithms for encryption, authentication, etc.
 Middleware:
 in-network processing of sensor data can eliminate redundant data
 Challenges in WSNs: Self-Management

 Ad-hoc deployment
 many sensor networks are deployed “without design”
 sensors dropped from airplanes
 sensors placed wherever currently needed
 moving sensors
 sensor node must have some or all of the following abilities
 determine its location
 determine identity of neighboring nodes
 configure node parameters
 discover route(s) to base station
 initiate sensing responsibility

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 Challenges in WSNs: Self-Management
 Unattended operation
 once deployed, WSN must operate without human intervention
 device adapts to changes in topology, density, and traffic load
 device adapts in response to failures
 Self Managing
 Device will monitor its surroundings, adapt to changes in the
environment, cooperate with neighbouring nodes to form topology or
agree on sensing, processing and communication strategies
 Other terminology
 self-organization is the ability to adapt configuration parameters based on
system and environmental state
 self-optimization is the ability to monitor and optimize the use of the
limited system resources
 self-protection is the ability recognize and protect from intrusions and
attacks
 self-healing is the ability to discover, identify, and react to network
disruptions 16
 Challenges in WSNs: Decentralization
 Centralized management (e.g., at the base station) of the network often not feasible
to due large scale of network and energy constraints
 Therefore, decentralized (or distributed) solutions often preferred, though they may
perform worse than their centralized counterparts

 Example: routing
 Centralized:
 BS collects information from all sensor nodes
 BS establishes “optimal” routes (e.g., in terms of energy)
 BS informs all sensor nodes of routes
 can be expensive, especially when the topology changes frequently
 Decentralized:
 each sensors makes routing decisions based on limited local information
 routes may be non-optimal, but route establishment/management can be much
cheaper

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Challenges in WSNs: Design Constraints
 Many hardware and software limitations affect the overall system design

 Examples include:
 Low processing speeds (to save energy)
 Low storage capacities (to allow for small form factor and to save energy)
 Lack of I/O components such as GPS receivers (reduce cost, size, energy)
 Lack of software features such as multi-threading (reduce software complexity)

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 Challenges in WSNs: Security
 Sensor networks often monitor critical infrastructure or carry sensitive information,
making them desirable targets for attacks

 Attacks may be facilitated by:

 remote and unattended operation
 wireless communication
 lack of advanced security features due to cost, form factor, or energy

 Conventional security techniques often not feasible due to their computational,

communication, and storage requirements
 As a consequence, sensor networks require new solutions for intrusion detection,
encryption, key establishment and distribution and node authentication

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 Comparison
Traditional Networks
General-purpose design; serving many
applications
Typ ic a l p ri ma ry d e s i g n c o n c e r n s a r e
network performance and latencies;
energy is not a primary concern
Networks are designed and engineered
according to plans
Devices and networks operate in
controlled and mild environments
Maintenance and repair are common and
networks are typically easy to access
Component failure is addressed through
maintenance and repair
Obtaining global network knowledge is
typically feasible and centralized
management is possible
Wireless Sensor Networks
Single-purpose design; serving one
specific application
Energy is the main constraint in the
design of all node and network
components
Deployment, network structure, and
resource use are often ad-hoc (without
planning)
Sensor networks often operate in
environments with harsh conditions
Physical access to sensor nodes is often
difficult or even impossible
Component failure is expected and
addressed in the design of the network
Most decisions are made localized without
the support of a central manager
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 Outline

 The Sensing Subsystem

 Analog-to-Digital Converter
 The Processor Subsystem
 Architectural Overview
 Microcontroller
 Digital Signal Processor
 Application-specific Integrated Circuit
 Field Programmable Gate Array
 Comparison
 Communication Interfaces
 Serial Peripheral Interface
 Inter-Integrated Circuit
 Summary
 Prototypes
 The IMote Node Architecture
 The XYZ Node Architecture
 The Hogthrob Node Architecture

2
 Node Architecture

 Wireless sensor nodes are the essential building blocks

in a wireless sensor network
 Node that sensing, processing, and communication take place.
 It stores and executes the communication protocols as well
as data processing algorithms

 The node consists of sensing, processing,

communication, and power subsystems
 trade-off between flexibility and efficiency – both in terms of
energy and performance
 Several processors:
 microcontrollers,
 digital signal processors (DSP),
 application specific integrated circuits (ASIC) and
 field programmable gate arrays (FPGA). 3
Node Architecture

Figure 3.1 Architecture of a wireless sensor node

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 Node Architecture – Contd.
 Connect the sensing subsystem with the processor
 Connecting 2 or more analog sensors with a multichannel ADC system that
integrates multiple high-speed ADCs into a single IC design.
 ADCs produce crosstalk and increase uncorrelated noise,
 Reducing the signal to noise ratio (SNR)
 Coupled signal can create harmonic terms, reducing spurious free dynamic
range (SFDR) & total harmonic distortion (THD)
 Some sensors have own build-in ADC – directly connected with the
processor through a standard chip-to-chip protocol.
 Microcontrollers have 1 or more internal ADCs to interface analog devices.

 Connecting communication subsystem with processor

 Use SPI serial bus
 Commercial transceivers provide a controlling functionality to switch the
transceiver between various active operation levels;
 Idle
 Sleep state
3
Node Architecture – The sensing subsystem

 Sensing subsystem integrates 1 or more physical sensors and provide

1 or more ADC with multiplexing mechanism to share.
 Sensor interface the virtual world with the physical world.
 Physical sensor contains a transducer – a device that converts one
form of energy into another form of energy.
 ADC converts is required to interface a sensing subsystem with a
digital processor.

3
 The Sensing Subsystem

 The sensing subsystem integrates

Application
Sensor Sensed Event Explanation
Area

2D and 3D acceleration of
Accelerometer Active Volcano Volcano activities
movements of people and objects
meter (AVM)

Structural Health Stiffness of a structure

Monitoring (SHM)
Stiffness of bones, limbs, joints; Motor
Health care
fluctuation in Parkinsonʼs disease

Irregularities in rail, axle box or wheels of a train

Transportation system

Supply chain Defect of fragile objects during transportation

Management
(SCM)
Acoustic Structural Health Elastic waves generated by the
Monitoring (SHM) Measures micro-structural changes or
emission energy released during crack
displacements
sensor propagation

Acoustic Transportation & Vehicle detection; Measure structural

Acoustic pressure vibration
sensor Pipelines irregularities; Gas contamination

Capacitance
sensor PA Solute concentration Measure the water content of a soil

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 The Sensing Subsystem

Application
Sensor Sensed Event Explanation
Area

ECG Health care Heart rate

EEG Brain electrical activity

EMG Muscle activity

Electrical/ electro Electrical capacitance or inductance
magnetic sensors Measure of nutrient contents and
PA affected by the composition of tested
distribution
soil

Gyroscope Health care Angular velocity Detection of gait phases

Humidity sensor PA & HM Relative and absolute humidity

Concussive acoustic waves – earth

Infrasonic sensor AVM
quake or volcanic eruption

Presence, intensity, direction, rotation

Presence, speed and density of a
Magnetic sensor Transportation and variation of a magnetic field
vehicle on a street; congestion

Blood oxygenation of patient's Cardiovascular exertion and trending of

Oximeter Health care hemoglobin exertion relative to activity

Indicates the acid and alkaline

Pipeline
pH sensor Concentration of hydrogen ions content of a water measure of
(water)
cleanliness

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 The Sensing Subsystem

Application
Sensor Area Sensed Event Explanation

Photo acoustic
Pipeline Gas sensing Detects gas leak in a pipeline
spectroscopy

A leak produces a high frequency

Piezoelectric noise that produces a high frequency
cylinder Pipeline Gas velocity noise that produces vibration

Soil moisture sensor PA Soil moisture Fertilizer and water management

Temperature sensor PA & HM Pressure exerted on a fluid

Passive infrared Health care &

sensor HM Infrared radiation from objects Motion detection

Measure primary and secondary seismic

Seismic sensor AVM Detection of earth quake
waves (Body wave, ambient vibration)

Amount and proportion of oxygen in the

Oxygen sensor Health care blood

The Doppler shift of a reflected ultrasonic

Blood flow sensor Health care wave in the blood

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 Analog-to-Digital Converter

 ADC converts the output of a sensor - which is a

continuous, analog signal - into a digital signal. It
requires two steps:
1. the analog signal has to be quantized – converted form a continuous
valued signal into a discrete valued signal; discrete both in time and
magnitude
 allowable discrete values is influenced :
(a) by the frequency and magnitude of the signal
(b) by the available processing and storage resources
2. the sampling frequency
 Nyquist rate does not suffice because of noise and transmission error
 resolution of ADC - an expression of the number of bits that can be used to
encode the digital output
 where Q is the resolution in volts per step (volts per output code);
Epp
is the peak-to-peak analog voltage; M is the ADCʼs resolution in bits
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 The Processor Subsystem

 The processor subsystem

 interconnects all the other subsystems and some additional
peripheries
 its main purpose is to execute instructions pertaining to sensing,
communication, and self-organization

 It consists of
 processor chip
 nonvolatile memory - stores program instructions
 active memory - temporarily stores the sensed data
 internal clock

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 Architectural Overview

 Major concern in resource-constrained processors is the

efficient execution of algorithms
 The processor subsystem can be designed by employing
one of the three basic computer architectures
 Von Neumann architecture
 Harvard architecture
 Super-Harvard (SHARC) architecture

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 Von Neumann Architecture

 Von Neumann architecture

 provides a single memory space - storing program instructions
and data
 provides a single bus - to transfer data between the processor
and the memory
 Slow processing speed - each data transfer requires a separate
clock

15
 Harvard Architecture
 Harvard architecture
 provides separate memory spaces - storing program instructions and data
 each memory space is interfaced with the processor with a
separate data bus
 program instructions and data can be accessed at the same time
 a special single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) operation, a special
arithmetic operation and a bit reverse
 supports multi-tasking operating systems; but does not provide virtual
memory protection

17
 Super-Harvard Architecture

 Super-Harvard architecture (best known: SHARC)

 an extension of the Harvard architecture
 adds two components to the Harvard architecture:
 internal instruction cache - temporarily store frequently used
instructions - enhances performance
 an underutilized program memory can be used as a temporary
relocation place for data
 Direct Memory Access (DMA)
 costly CPU cycles can be invested in a different task
 program memory bus and data memory bus accessible from outside
the chip

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 Super-Harvard Architecture

Program Memory Processor Data Memory

Instruction Cache

Address Bs

Data Bus

I/O Controller

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 Microcontroller
 Microcontroller is a computer on a single IC, consisting of a comparatively simple
central processing unit and additional components such as high-speed buses, a
memory unit, a watchdog timer and an external clock.
 Structure of microcontroller
 integrates the following components:
 CPU core – 4 bit to complex 32 bit processors
 volatile memory (RAM) for data storage
 ROM, EPROM, EEPROM, or Flash memory for storing relatively simple
instruction program code.
 parallel I/O interfaces
 discrete input and output bits
 clock generator
 one or more internal analog-to-digital converters
19
 serial communications interfaces
 Microcontroller
 Advantages:
 suitable for building computationally less intensive, standalone
applications, because of its compact construction, small size,
low-power consumption, and low cost
 high speed of the programming and eases debugging, because of
the use of higher-level programming languages
 Disadvantages:
 not as powerful and as efficient as some custom-made processors
(such as DSPs and FPGAs)
 some applications (simple sensing tasks but large scale
deployments) may prefer to use architecturally simple but energy-
and cost-efficient processors

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 Outline

 The Sensing Subsystem

 Analog-to-Digital Converter
 The Processor Subsystem
 Architectural Overview
 Microcontroller
 Digital Signal Processor
 Application-specific Integrated Circuit
 Field Programmable Gate Array
 Comparison
 Communication Interfaces
 Serial Peripheral Interface
 Inter-Integrated Circuit
 Summary
 Prototypes
 The IMote Node Architecture
 The XYZ Node Architecture
 The Hogthrob Node Architecture

36
 Communication Interfaces

 Fast and energy efficient data transfer between the

subsystems of a wireless sensor node is vital
 however, the practical size of the node puts restriction on system
buses
 communication via a parallel bus is faster than a serial
transmission
 a parallel bus needs more space. It requires dedicated line for
every bit that should be transmitted simultaneously.
 A serial bus needs single data line only.

 Therefore, considering the size of the node, parallel

buses are never supported

37
 Communication Interfaces

 The choice is often between serial interfaces :

 Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
 General Purpose Input/Output (GPIO)
 Secure Data Input/Output (SDIO)
 Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2 C)
 Among these, the most commonly used buses are SPI
and I2C

38
 Serial Peripheral Interface
 SPI (Motorola, in the mid-80s)
 high-speed, full-duplex synchronous serial bus
 does not have an official standard, but use of the SPI interface should
conform to the implementation specification of others - correct
communication.
 ex: devices should agree whether to transmit the MSB or LSB first.
 The SPI bus defines four pins:
 MOSI (MasterOut/SlaveIn) or SIMO
 used to transmit data from the master to the slave when a device is
configured as a master
 MISO (MasterIn/SlaveOut) or SOMI
 used to receive data from the master to the slave when a device is
configured as a slave.
 SCLK (Serial Clock)
 used by the master to send the clock signal that is needed to
synchronize transmission
 used by the slave to read this signal synchronize transmission
 CS (Chip Select) or SS (Slave Select) - communicate via the CS port
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 Connecting Devices with SPI bus

Single Master with Single Slave

Single Master with Multiple Slave

 Serial Peripheral Interface

 Both master and slave devices hold a shift register

connected in a ring-forming
 Every device in every transmission must read and send
data
 SPI supports a synchronous communication protocol
 the master and the slave must agree on the timing
 i.e. the master sets the clock according to the slave’s maximum
clock speed – the baud generator of the master reads the slave’s
clock and calculates the master’s clock by dividing the read speed
with an internally defined value.
 master and slave should agree on two additional parameters
 clock polarity (CPOL) - defines whether a clock is used as high-
or low-active
 clock phase (CPHA) - determines the times when the data in the
registers is allowed to change and when the written data can be
read
41
Serial Peripheral Interface

42
 Inter-Integrated Circuit
 The standard does not specify a CS or SS. Every
device type that uses I2C must have a unique address
that will be used to communicate with a device
 In earlier versions, a 7 bit address was used, allowing
112 devices to be uniquely addressed - due to an
increasing number of devices, it is insufficient
 Currently I2C uses 10 bit addressing
 I2C is a multi-master half-duplex synchronous serial bus
 only two bidirectional lines: (unlike SPI, which uses four)
 Serial Clock (SCL)
 Serial Data (SDA)

44
 Inter-Integrated Circuit

 Since each master generates its own clock signal,

communicating devices must synchronize their clock
speeds
 a slower slave device could wrongly detect its address on the
SDA line while a faster master device is sending data to a third
device

 I2C requires arbitration between master devices wanting

to send or receive data at the same time
 no fair arbitration algorithm
 rather the master that holds the SDA line low for the longest time
wins the medium

45
 Inter-Integrated Circuit

 I2C enables a device to read data at a byte level for a

fast communication
 the device can hold the SCL low until it completes reading or
sending the next byte - called handshaking

 The aim of I2C is to minimize costs for connecting

devices
 accommodating lower transmission speeds
 I2C defines two speed modes:
 a fast-mode - a bit rate of up to 400Kbps
 high-speed mode - a transmission rate of up to 3.4 Mbps
 they are downwards compatible to ensure communication with
older components

46
 Communication in I2C

Old protocol

New protocol –
displayed with
the first two
bytes of
transfer and 10
bit address
 Comparison
I2C
SPI
2 l i n e s reduce space and s i m p l i f y c i r c u i t l a y o u t ;
4 l i n e s enable f u l l - d u p l e x t ra ns mi s si on
Lowers c o s t s

Addressing en a ble s mu l ti -m as te r mode; A r b i t r a t i o n

No a ddr e ss ing i s r e q u i r e d due t o CS
i s required

Allowing only one master avoids c o n f l i c t s Multi-master mode i s prone t o c o n f l i c t s

Hardware requirement s up po rt i n c r e a s e s with an Hardware re quire ment i s independent o f t h e number

i n c r e a s i n g number o f connected d ev ic e s - - o f de vic e s using t h e bus
costly
The m a s t e r ' s clock i s configured according t o t h e
Slower d ev ic e s may s t r e t c h t h e clock - - l a t e n c y bu t
s l a v e ' s speed b u t speed a d a p t a t i o n slows down t h e keeping o t h e r d e v i c es w a it ing
master.

Speed depends on t h e maximum speed o f t h e s low e s t

Speed i s l i m i t e d t o 3 . 4 MHz
device

Heterogeneous r e g i s t e r s s i z e allows f l e x i b i l i t y
Homogeneous r e g i s t e r s i z e reduces overhead
i n t h e de vi c e s t h a t a r e s up p o r te d .

Combined r e g i s t e r s imply every tr a ns mi s si on Devices t h a t do n ot r e a d o r provide d a t a a r e not

should be r e a d ANDw r i t e f o r ce d t o provide p o t e n t i a l l y u s e l e s s by t es

The absence o f an o f f i c i a l s ta nda r d l e a d s t o O f f i c i a l st a n d a r d e a s e s i n t e g r a t i o n o f de vic e s

a p p l i c a t i o n s p e c i f i c implementations s i n c e developers can r e l y on a c e r t a i n
implementation 47
 Communication Interfaces - Summary

 Buses are essential highways to transfer data

 due to the concern for size, only serial buses can be used
 serial buses demand high clock speeds to gain the same
throughput as parallel buses
 serial buses can also be bottlenecks (e.g., Von Neumann
architecture) or may not scale well with processor speed (e.g.,
I2 C)

 Delays due to contention for bus access become critical,

for example, if some of the devices act unfairly and keep
the bus occupied

49
 The IMote Node Architecture

 The IMote sensor node architecture is a multi-purpose

architecture, consisting of :
 a power management subsystem
 a processor subsystem
 a sensing subsystem
 a communication subsystem
 an interfacing subsystem

51
 The IMote Node Architecture

 A multiple-sensor board
contains :
 a 12-bit, four channels
ADC
 a high-resolution
temperature/humidity
sensor
 a low-resolution digital
temperature sensor
 a light sensor
 the I2C bus is used to
connect low data rate
sources
 the SPI bus is used to
interface high data rate
sources 52
 The IMote Node Architecture

 The processing subsystem provides

 main processor (microprocessor)
 operates in low voltage (0.85V) and low frequency (13MHz) mode
 Dynamic Voltage Scaling (Frequency can be scaled between
104MHz - 416MHz)
 sleep and deep sleep modes
 thus enabling low power operation
 coprocessor (a DSP)
 accelerates multimedia operations - computation intensive
 One realization is based on the Chipcon (CC2420) transceiver, which
implements the IEEE 802.15.4 radio specification. The transceiver provides
a transmission rate of 250 kbps over 16 channels in the 2.4-GHz band.

55
 The XYZ Node Architecture
 Consists of the four subsystems:
 power subsystem
 communication subsystem
 mobility subsystem
 sensor subsystem

56
 The XYZ Node Architecture

 The processor subsystem is based on the ARM7TDMI

core microcontroller
 fmax = 58MHz
 two different modes (32bits and 16bits)
 provides an on-chip memory of 4KB boot ROM and a 32KB RAM
- can be extended by up to 512KB of flash memory
 Peripheral components:
 DMA controller (Direct memory access)
 10-bit ADC inputs
 serial ports (RS232, SPI, I2C, SIO)
 42 multiplexed general purpose I/O pins
 multiplexed GPIO pins are available on two 30-pin headers
together with the DC voltage provided by the power subsystem
or directly by an on-board voltage regulator.
58
 The XYZ Node Architecture

 The communication subsystem is connected to the

processing subsystem through a SPI interface
 CC2420 RF transceiver
 when an RF message has been successfully received, the SPI
interface enables the radio to wake up a sleeping processor
 the processor subsystem controls the communication subsystem
by either turning it off or putting it in sleep mode
• Mobility subsystem appears to be a separate
subsystem
• it should be considered as a part of the sensor subsystem.

59
 The Hogthrob Node Architecture

 By Bonnet et al in 2006
 Designed for a specific application, namely, to monitor
pig production
 Motivation:
 monitors movements of a sow to predict onset of
estrus
 so that appropriate care can be given for pregnant sows

 detecting cough or limping to monitor illness

60
The Hogthrob Node Architecture

61
 The Hogthrob Node Architecture

 The processing subsystems consists of :

 microcontroller
 performs less complex, less energy intensive tasks
 initializes the FPGA and functions as an external timer and an ADC
converter to it
 Field Programmable Gate Array
 executes the sow monitoring application
 coordinates the functions of the sensor node

62
 The Hogthrob Node Architecture

 There are a number of interfaces supported by the

processing subsystem, including
 the I2 C interface for the sensing subsystem
 the SPI interface for the communication subsystem
 the JTAG interface for in-system programmability and debugging
 the serial (RS232) interface for interaction with a PC

63
 Operating Systems
 An operating System is
 a thin software layer
 resides between the hardware and the application layer
 provides basic programming abstractions to application
developers

 Its main task is to enable applications to interact with

hardware resources

3
 Operating Systems
 Operating systems are classified as: single-task/
multitasking and single-user/multiuser operating systems
 multi-tasking OS - the overhead of concurrent processing
because of the limited resources
 single task OS - tasks should have a short duration
 The choice of a particular OS depends on several
factors; typically functional and non-functional aspects
 Functional Aspects  Non-Functional Aspects
 Data Types  Separation of Concern
 Scheduling  System Overhead
 Stacks  Portability
 System Calls  Dynamic Reprogramming
 Handling Interrupts
 Multithreading
 Thread-based vs. Event-based
Programming
 Memory Allocation
4
 TinyOS (Gay et al. 2007)
 TinyOS is the most widely used, richly documented, and
tool-assisted runtime environment in WSN
 static memory allocation
 event-based system

 TinyOSʼs architecture consists of

 a scheduler
 a set of components, which are classified into
 configuration components - "wiring" (how models are connected
with each other)
 modules - the basic building blocks of a TinyOS program

27
 TinyOS (Gay et al. 2007)
 A component is made up of
 a frame
 command handlers
 event handlers
 a set of non-preemptive tasks

 A component is similar to an object in object-based

programming languages:
 it encapsulates state and interacts through well-defined
interfaces
 an interface that can define commands, event handlers, and
tasks

28
 TinyOS (Gay et al. 2007)

Figure 4.1 Logical distinction between low-level and high-level components (Hill et al. 2000)

29
 TinyOS (Gay et al. 2007)
 Components are structured hierarchically and
communicate with each other through commands and
events:
 higher-level components issue commands to lower-level
components
 lower-level components signal events to higher-level
components

 In Figure 4.1, two components at the highest level

communicate asynchronously through active messages
 routing component - establishing and maintaining the network
 sensor application - responsible for sensing and processing

30
 TinyOS (Gay et al. 2007)
 The logical structure of components and component
configurations

Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4

A TinyOS components that uses an interface A TinyOS configuration that wires an interface
provider and an interface user

Figure 4.2
A TinyOS component providing an interface
In Figure 4.2, Component A
declares its service by
providing interface C,
which in turn provides
command D1 and signals
event D2.
In Figure 4.3, Component B In Figure 4.4, a binding
expresses interest in between Component A
interface C by declaring a and Component B is
call to command D1 and established through the
by providing an event Configuration E.
handler to process event
D2.
31
 Tasks, Commands and Events
 The fundamental building blocks of a TinyOS runtime
environment: tasks, commands, and events
 enabling effective communication between the components of a
single frame

 Tasks :
 monolithic processes - should execute to completion - they
cannot be preempted by other tasks, though they can be
interrupted by events
 possible to allocate a single stack to store context information
 call lower level commands; signal higher level events; and post
(schedule) other tasks
 scheduled based on FIFO principle (in TinyOS)

32
 Tasks, Commands and Events
 Commands:
 non-blocking requests made by higher-level components to
lower-level components
 split-phase operation:
 a function call returns immediately
 the called function notifies the caller when the task is completed

 Events:
 events are processed by the event handler
 event handlers are called when hardware events occur
 an event handler may react to the occurrence of an event in
different ways
 deposit information into its frame, post tasks, signal higher level
events, or call lower level commands

33
 Contiki (Dunkels et al. 2004)
 Contiki is a hybrid operating system
 an event-driven kernel but multi-threading with a dynamic linking
strategy
 separate the kernel from processes
 communication of services through the kernel by posting events
 the kernel does not provide hardware abstraction
 device drivers and applications communicate directly with the
hardware
 the kernel is easy to reprogram and it is easy to replace services

42
 Contiki (Dunkels et al. 2004)
 For each SOS service:
 it manages its own state in a private memory
 the kernel keeps a pointer to the process state
 it shares with other services the same address space
 it implements an event handler and an optional poll handler

43
 Contiki (Dunkels et al. 2004)

Figure 4.6 The Contiki operating system: the system programs are partitioned into core services and loaded programs

44
 Contiki (Dunkels et al. 2004)
 Figure 4.6 illustrates Contikiʼs memory assignment in
ROM and RAM
 Basic assignment:
 dispatch events
 synchronous events
 asynchronous events
 periodically call polling handlers
 the status of hardware components is sampled periodically

45
 Service Structure

Figure 4.7 A Contiki service interaction architecture (Dunkels et al. 2004)

46
 Service Structure
 Figure 4.7 illustrates how application programs interact
with Contiki services
 Contiki OS supports
 dynamic loading
 reconfiguration of services
 This is achieved by defining
 services
 service interfaces
 service stubs
 service layers

47
Applications of Wireless Sensor Networks
Introduction
Background
Range of Applications
Examples of Category 2 WSN Applications
• Home Control
• Building Automation
• Industrial Automation
• Medical Applications
Examples of Category 1 WSN Applications
• Sensor and Robots
• Reconfigurable Sensor Networks
• Highway Monitoring
• Military Applications
• Civil and Environmental Engineering Applications
• Wildfire Instrumentation
• Habitat Monitoring
• Nanoscopic Sensor Applications
Another Taxonomy of WSN Technology
Conclusion
A short list of applications follows.
Military applications
Monitoring inimical forces
Monitoring friendly forces and equipment Home applications
Military-theater or battlefield surveillance Home automation
Targeting Instrumented environment
Battle damage assessment Automated meter reading
Nuclear, biological, and chemical attack detection and more . . .
and more . . . Commercial applications
Environmental applications Environmental control in industrial and office buildings
Microclimates Inventory control
Forest fire detection Vehicle tracking and detection
Flood detection Traffic flow surveillance
Precision agriculture and more . . .
and more . . .
Health applications
Remote monitoring of physiological data
Tracking and monitoring doctors and patients inside a
hospital
Drug administration
Elderly assistance
and more . . .
Introduction

• W S N s n o d e s (W N s ) c a n s e n s e t h e
environment, can communicate with
neighboring nodes, and can, in many
cases, perform basic computations on the
data being collected.
• WSNs support a wide range of useful
applications
Background
Sensor networks and systems into two basic categories:
• Category 1 WSNs (C1WSNs): almost invariably mesh-based
systems with multihop radio connectivity among or between WNs,
utilizing dynamic routing in both the wireless and wireline
portions of the network. Ex. Military theater systems.
• Category 2 WSNs (C2WSNs): point-to-point or multipoint-to-
point (starbased) systems generally with single-hop radio
connectivity to WNs, utilizing static routing over the wireless
network; typically, there will be only one route from the WNs to
the companion terrestrial/wireline forwarding node (WNs are
pendent nodes). Ex.Residential control systems
 Characteristics of C1WSNs
• Sensor nodes (i.e., the WNs) do not support
communications on behalf of any other sensor nodes;
• The forwarding node supports only static routing to the
terrestrial network, and/or only one physical link to the
terrestrial network is present;
• The radio link is measured in hundreds of meters; and
• The forwarding node does not support data processing or
reduction on behalf of the sensor nodes.
Characteristics of C2WSNs

• Sensor nodes can support communications on behalf of other

sensor nodes by acting as repeaters;
• The forwarding node supports dynamic routing and more than
one physical link to the rest of the network is physically and
logically present;
• The radio links are measured in thousands of meters; and
• The forwarding node can support data processing or reduction on
behalf of the sensor nodes. These are relatively complex and
‘‘meshy’’ wireless systems.
Two types of behavior:
cooperative
when a node forwards information on behalf of another node
non cooperative
when a node handles only its own communication
Category 2 Applications
Supports point-to-point topologies
Single-hop radio connectivity utilizing static routing
Examples for Category 2 Applications
• Building automation, Industrial, Medical, residential control
and monitoring applications.
• It also includes lighting controls; automatic meter reading;
wireless smoke and CO detectors; HVAC control; heating
control; home security; environmental controls; blind, drapery,
and shade controls; medical sensing and monitoring; universal
remote control to a set-top box that includes home control,
industrial automation, and building automation.
Wireless Standards in Wireless Sensor Networks

• Zigbee
• Bluetooth
• Wireless LAN
Zigbee

Uses IEEE 802.15.4 (ZigBee)

ZigBee provides interoperability and desirable RF performance
characteristics, with chipsets implementing the standard-
specified protocol stack being developed at press time.
ZigBee5 enables the broad-based deployment of wireless
networks with low cost, low-power solutions.
ZigBee is capable of inexpensively supporting robust
networking environments and is able to support, by design, a
very large set of nodes.
 Bluetooth

IEEE 802.15.1
Bluetooth is designed for high QoS, a variety of duty cycles, and moderate data rates in networks
with limited active nodes.
Wireless LAN

IEEE 802.15.3
For wide range of connectivity
Battery type used in WSN
Battery may be rechargeable or replaceable.
Majorly used battery types are
AA alkaline cells
Li-AA cell
Home Control

Hom e control ap plicati ons provide con trol, co ns ervation ,

convenience, and safety, as follows
Sensing applications facilitate flexible management
of lighting, heating, and cooling systems from
anywhere in the home.
Sensing applications automate control of multiple
home systems to improve conservation, convenience,
and safety.
Sensing applications capture highly detailed electric,
water, and gas utility usage data.
Cont.,

Sensing applications embed intelligence to optimize consumption of

natural resources.
Sensing applications enable the installation, upgrading, and
networking of a home control system without wires.
Sensing applications enable one to configure and run multiple
systems from a single remote control.
Sensing applications support the straightforward installation of
wireless sensors to monitor a wide variety of conditions.
Sensing applications facilitate the reception of automatic notification
upon detection of unusual events.
Cont.,
Building Automation

Wireless lighting control can easily be accomplished with C2WSNs .

Wireless technologies – ZigBee
Hotel energy management is another task that can easily be
accomplished with C2WSNs in general and ZigBee technology in
particular.
Centralized Hotel Energy management allow hotel operators to make
sure that empty rooms are not cooled.
Asset management is yet another application for C2WSNs.
Building
Automation
Sensing applications integrate and centralize management of lighting,
includes heating, cooling, and security (e.g., see Figure 2.6).
Sensing applications automate control of multiple systems to improve
conservation, flexibility, and security.
Sensing applications reduce energy expenses through optimized
Hotel Energy Management.
Sensing applications enable one to allocate utility costs equitably
based on actual consumption.
Sensing applications enable the rapid reconfiguring of lighting
systems to create adaptable workspaces.
Cont.,

Sensing applications enable the extension and upgrading of building

infrastructure with minimal effort.
Sensing applications enable one to network and integrate data from
multiple access control points.
Sensing applications enable one to deploy wireless monitoring
networks to enhance perimeter protection.
Cont.,
Cont.,
As noted, there is interest in the environmental control for buildings,
including energy scavenging.
The ultimate preference would be to use micro sensor technology that
utilizes ultralow-power radio systems and compact packaging; such
control can be achieved with multimodal wireless sensing and
communication technology.
Cont.,

Recent focus has been in two areas: airflow measurement technology

and the use of sensor networks for controlling indoor temperature.
Under Floor Air Distribution (UFAD) systems are commonly
controlled with a single temperature sensor; that can be localized in a

.
single point
Cont.,

In a cabled design, the cost of installing cabling for the sensors

typically represents 50 to 90% of the total cost of the system.
Therefore, WSNs have the potential of greatly reducing the overall
cost. MEMS-based WNs are expected to reduce the cost further.
In the future, sensors may be embedded directly in products such as
ceiling tiles and furniture, enabling improved control of the indoor
environment.
Cont.,

A WSN used for building energy monitoring and control can improve

living conditions for the building’s occupants, resulting in improved

thermal comfort, improved air quality, health, safety, and productivity; at

the same time, it can reduce the energy budget needed to condition the

space.

WSNs systems consist of wireless motes with relays that can turn lights off

and on. These systems need to be designed to be compatible with existing

lighting systems and will not require replacement of existing lighting

ballasts or existing switches.

Cont.,

Support multiple sensing of temperature, light, sound, flow, and

localization (called multimodal sensing).
Support a seamless wireless network interface.
Support an integrated energy source that allows the node to be self-
contained and to operate independently for at least 10 years Support
building control applications software.
Industrial Automation

Industrial automation applications provide control,

conservation, efficiency, and safety, as follows
Sensing applications extend existing manufacturing
and process control systems reliably.
Sensing applications improve asset management by
continuous monitoring of critical equipment.
Sensing applications reduce energy costs through
optimized manufacturing processes.
Cont.,

Sensing applications help identify inefficient

operation or poorly performing equipment.
Sensing applications help automate data acquisition
from remote sensors to reduce user intervention.
Sensing applications provide detailed data to
improve preventive maintenance programs.
Sensing applications help deploy monitoring
networks to enhance employee and public safety.
Sensing applications help streamlining data
collection for improved compliance reporting.
Specific Application for Industry and Commercial
Applications include
Warehouses, fleet management, factories, supermarkets, office
complexes, Gas, water, and electric meters.
Smoke, CO, and H2O detectors
Refrigeration cage or appliance
Equipment management services and preventive maintenance
Security services (including peel-n’-stick security sensors)
Lighting control
Cont.,
 RFID –Wireless Technology
The benefits of RFID tagging of airplane parts include
reducing the time it takes to generate aircraft-inspection
reports and optimizing maintenance operations.
Medical Applications

A number of hospitals and medical centers are exploring applications

of WSN technology for emergency care, disaster response, and stroke
patient rehabilitation.
WSNs permit home monitoring for
chronic and elderly patients, facilitating long-term care and trend
analysis; this
in turn can sometimes reduce the length of hospital stays. WSNs also
permit
collection of long-term medical information that populates databases
of clinical
data; this enables longitudinal studies across populations and allows
physicians
to study the effects of medical intervention programs
Cont.,

Harvard University and others have developed a small, wearable

wireless pulse oximeter and two-lead electrocardiogram (EKG).
These devices collect heart rate, oxygen saturation, and EKG data
and relay it over a short-range (100-m) wireless network to any
number of receiving devices.
The data can be displayed
in real time and integrated into the developing pre-hospital patient
care record.
The sensor devices themselves can be programmed to process the
vital sign data, for example, to raise an alert condition when vital
signs fall outside normal parameters.
Cont.,

Harvard University has also developed a tiny

wearable device for
monitoring the limb movements and muscle activity
of stroke patients during rehabilitation
exercise. These devices, consisting of three-axis
accelerometer, gyroscope,
and electromyogram sensors, allow researchers to
capture a rich data set
of motion data for studying the effect of various
rehabilitation exercises on this
patient population
Cont.,

Harvard University developed a scalable software infrastructure

called CodeBlue, for wireless medical devices.
CodeBlue is designed to provide routing, naming, discovery, and
security for wireless medical sensors, PDAs, PCs, and other devices
that may be used to monitor and treat patients in a number of medical
settings
CodeBlue system includes a system for tracking the location of
individual patient devices indoors and outdoors using radio signal
information
CATEGORY 1 WSN APPLICATIONS
Military sensor networks to detect and gain as much information as possible about
enemy movements, explosions, and other phenomena of interest
Law enforcement and national security applications for inimical agent tracking or
nefarious substance monitoring
Sensor networks to detect and characterize chemical, biological, radiological,
nuclear, and explosive (CBRNE) attacks and material
Sensor networks to detect and monitor environmental changes in plains, forests,
oceans, and so on
Wireless traffic sensor networks to monitor vehicle traffic on highways or in
congested parts of a city
Wireless surveillance sensor networks for providing security in shopping malls,
parking garages, and other facilities
Wireless parking lot sensor networks to determine which spots are occupied and
which are free
Borders monitoring with sensors and satellite uplinks
Law enforcement- national Security Application
and real time administrative access to
distributed notes
Sensor and Robots
Mobile robotics will use WSNs to achieve ubiquitous computing environments.

Robots embody sensing, actuation,and basic (miniaturized) robotics functions.

The field of mobile robotics deals with mechanical aspects (the wheels, motors, grasping arms, or physical layout) as
well as with the logic aspects (the microprocessors, the software, and the telemetry).
• Can a mobile robot act as a gateway into a wireless sensor
network?
• Can sensor networks take advantage of a robot’s mobility and
a sensor network can be equipped with IEEE 802.11 capabilities to bridge the gap between
intelligence?
robotics and
wireless networks.

Motes equipped with 802.11 wireless capabilities can be added to a sensor network to act as wireless hubs.
Other motes in the network then utilize each other as links to reach the 802.11-equipped hubs; the hubs forward
the data packets to the main 802.11-capable gateway, which is usually a PC or laptop.
Sensor and Robots
WSN applications include preventive maintenance for
equipment in a semiconductor manufacturing fab, and sensor
networks for theme parks
Reconfigurable Sensor Networks
Military applications require support for tactical and surveillance
arrangements that employ reconfigurable sensor WNs that are capable of
forming networks on the fly.
Assembling themselves without central control, and being deployed
incrementally.
Reconfigurable ‘‘smart’’ WNs are self-aware, self-configurable, and
autonomous.
Self-organizing WSNs utilize mechanisms that allow newly deployed WNs to
establish connectivity (to build up a network topology) spontaneously. Also,
these networks have mechanisms for managing WN mobility (if any), WNs
reconfiguration, and WN failure (if and when that happens)
Highway
Monitoring
Transportation (traffic flow) is a sector that is expected to benefit
from increased monitoring and surveillance.

WNs is to collect data through a sensor network, process and store

the data in a data center, and distribute those data through a
variety of applications.

Traffic Pulse is targeted for open-air environments; it provides real-

time collection of data (e.g., to check temperature or monitor pollution levels).

The system is installed along major highways; the digital sensor network gathers
lane-by-lane data on travel speeds, lane occupancy, and vehicle counts.

These basic data elements make it possible to calculate average speeds and travel
times. The data are then transmitted to the data center for reformatting.

The network monitors roadway conditions continuously on a 24/7 basis and provides
updates to the data center in real time. The system collects key traffic information, Typical
including vehicle speeds, counts (volume), and roadway density, transmitting the highway
data over a wireless network to a data center every 60 seconds. traffic-sensing
installation.
(Courtesy of
traffic.com)
Each center produces the information through a wide range of methods: video, aircraft,
mobile units, and monitoring of emergency and maintenance services frequencies.
Applications
include the following:
1. Private traffic information providers in the United States: The company’s realtime
and archived data offer valuable tools for a variety of commercial and
governmental applications.
2. Telematics: For mobile professionals and others, the company’s traffic
information complements in-vehicle navigation devices, informing drivers
not only how to get from point A to point B but how long it will take to get
there, or even direct them to an alternative route.
 Military Surveillance

WSNs can replace single high-cost sensor assets

with large arrays of distributed sensors for both
security and surveillance applications.
WSNs deployable by untrained troops in essentially
any situation.
Distributed sensing has the additional advantages
of being able to provide redundant and highly
reliable information on threats as well as the ability
to localize threats by both coherent and incoherent
processing among the distributed sensor nodes.
WSNs are expected to improve troop safety as they
clear and monitor intersections, buildings, and
rooftops by providing continuous vigilance for
unknown troop and vehicle activity.
 Challenge
The primary challenge facing WSNs is accurate
identification of the signal being sensed.
signal classification algorithms to accomplish this goal
Low-power algorithms to classify a detected event as an
impulsive event
Civil and Environmental Engineering
Applications
Sensors can be used for civil engineering applications.
The goal is to develop ‘‘smart structures’’ that are able to
self-diagnose potential problems and self-prioritize requisite
repairs.
This technology is attractive for earthquake-active zones
This predicament limits the density of sensor deployment,
which in turn limits the planner’s view of a building’s
structural integrity.
if sensors that cost a few hundreds of dollars and that can be
installed relatively easily and quickly become available, one
arrives at a situation where dense packs of sensors can be
deployed to surround all critical beams and columns. This
arrangement is able to provide detailed structural data.
Wildfire Instrumentation
Collecting real-time data from wildfires is
important for life safety considerations and
allows predictive analysis of evolving fire
behavior.
One way to collect such data is to deploy
sensors in the wildfire environment. FireBugs
are small wireless sensors (motes) based on
TinyOS that self-organize into networks for
collecting real-time data in wildfire
environments
Habitat Monitoring

The goal was to develop a habitat-monitoring kit

that enables researchers worldwide to engage in
nonintrusive and non disruptive monitoring of
sensitive wildlife and habitats.
Dozen motes were deployed on the island. Each
mote has a microcontroller, a low-power radio,
memory, and batteries.
Sensor motes monitor the nesting habitat of
Leach’s storm petrel on the island and relay their
readings into a satellite link that allows researchers
to download real-time environmental data over the
Internet.
Reference

q Kazem Sohraby, Daniel manoli , ―Wireless Sensor

networks- Technology, Protocols and Applications, Wiley
InterScience Publications 2013.
q Waltenegus Dargie, Christian Poellabauer , ―Fundamentals
of Wireless Sensor Networks, Theory and Practice, Wiley
Series on wireless Communication and Mobile Computing,
2011
Thank You