item 3: Analysis of simulation and limitations

By manipulating the simulation parameters through experimentation, address the following:

1. [4 marks] What is the limit of the parameter value (theta)? Please provide mathematical

proof to support your answer.

The parameter theta in the simulation represents the beam deviation angle. It is the angle by
which the beam deviates from the normal line perpendicular to the line of emitters.

The limit of theta is determined by the physical constraints of the system. In a real-world
scenario, theta can range from -90 degrees to +90 degrees. This is because the beam cannot
go backwards towards the emitters (which would correspond to theta less than -90 degrees
or greater than 90 degrees).

Mathematically, this can be represented as:

-90≤Ꝋ≤90

This range ensures that the beam is always moving forward, away from the emitters, and can
cover the full range of directions in the plane of the emitters.

Proof:
The beam direction in a phased array system is determined by the phase differences between
the signals emitted by the individual antenna elements. The phase difference between two
adjacent antenna elements can be represented as:

2 πd
Δ ϕ= sin ( θ )
λ

where:

 d is the distance between the antenna elements,

 λ is the wavelength of the emitted signal, and
 theta is the beam deviation angle.

This equation shows that the phase difference depends on the sine of theta. The sine function
has a range of -1 to 1, which corresponds to an angle range of -90 degrees to 90 degrees.
Therefore, the maximum phase difference that can be achieved is when sin(theta) is 1 or -1,
which happens at theta equals 90 degrees or -90 degrees, respectively.

If theta were to exceed 90 degrees or go below -90 degrees, sin(theta) would still only range
between -1 and 1. This means that the phase difference (and therefore the beam direction)
would start to repeat for values of theta outside the range of -90 degrees to 90 degrees. In
other words, a theta of 100 degrees would result in the same beam direction as a theta of 80
degrees, for example. Therefore, the effective range of theta for unique beam directions is -90
degrees to 90 degrees. Any values outside this range would not provide any new beam
directions, which is why I consider this to be the limit of theta.
2. [6 marks] Which other parameter value influences the limit of the parameter value
(d) regarding the quality of beamforming? Explain how such influence works.

The other parameter value that influences the limit of the parameter value(d) regarding
beamforming is the wavelength. The wavelength of the signal has a direct influence on the limit of
the antenna spacing (d) in a phased array radar system. This relationship is crucial in avoiding the
formation of grating lobes, which are additional lobes in the radiation pattern that can cause
interference and reduce the radar’s detection capability.

The key principle here is the Nyquist criterion, which states that the antenna spacing (d) should be
less than or equal to one-half of the wavelength (λ) to avoid the formation of grating lobes:

λ
d≤
2
Here’s how the wavelength influences the antenna spacing:

Grating Lobes: If the antenna spacing (d) is greater than λ/2, grating lobes appear. These are
additional beams that form in undesired directions. Grating lobes can interfere with the main beam
and cause errors in the direction of arrival estimation.

Beamforming: The direction of the beam depends on the phase difference between the signals from
adjacent antennas. This phase difference is determined by the ratio of the antenna spacing (d) to the
wavelength (λ). If d is less than or equal to λ/2, we can steer the beam in any direction without the
appearance of grating lobes.

Therefore, the wavelength of the signal directly influences the limit of the antenna spacing (d) and
thus the quality of beamforming in a phased array radar system.

3. [6 marks] The simulation remains incomplete as it does not encompass the impact of certain

real-world physical phenomena that would be present in an actual implementation of the

experiment. Name one of these phenomena and explain how it can be incorporated into the

simulation.

One such real-world physical phenomenon that is not encompassed in the simulation is antenna
mutual coupling.

In an actual implementation of a 2D phased array radar system, the antennas are closely spaced. This
close proximity can lead to a phenomenon known as antenna mutual coupling, where the presence
of one antenna modifies the properties of nearby antennas. This can affect the radiation pattern and
impedance of the individual antennas, thereby influencing the overall performance of the radar
system.

To incorporate this into the simulation, we could modify the model to account for the effects of
mutual coupling. This could be done by introducing a coupling factor into the calculations for the
phase shifts and signal amplitudes. The coupling factor would depend on the relative positions of the
antennas and their operating frequencies.

It can be modelled using the method of moments (MoM), finite-difference time-domain (FDTD)
method, or other numerical methods, which are beyond the capabilities of Excel. However, consider
a simplified model.
Suppose we have an array of N antennas. The voltage at the nth antenna, Vn, can be expressed as:

V n=I n ⋅Z nn + ∑ I m ⋅ Z nm
m≠ n

where:

 In is the current at the nth antenna,

 Znn is the self-impedance of the nth antenna (impedance when it is isolated),

 Znm is the mutual impedance between the nth and mth antennas, which represents the
mutual coupling effect.

In an actual radar system, the currents at the antennas are not independent but are related through
mutual impedances. Therefore, a system of N equations (one for each antenna) is needed to find the
currents.

Once we have the currents, we can calculate the radiation pattern of the array. The electric field E at
a far-field point P due to the nth antenna can be approximated as:
− jk rn
I ⋅e
En = n
rn

This is a very simplified model and does not take into account many factors that would be present in
a real-world scenario. However, it gives a basic idea of how mutual coupling can be incorporated into
the simulation. For a more accurate simulation, specialized software tools are needed to handle the
complexity of mutual coupling. By considering antenna mutual coupling, the simulation would
provide a more accurate representation of a real-world 2D phased array radar system.