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REVIEWER= SSEd 121 FINAL
CHAPTER 9: LITHOSPHERE
The Rock Cycle -is a general model that describes
how various geological processes create, modify,
and influence rocks
Magma
Magma consists of a partially melted mixture of
elements and compounds commonly found in rocks.
Magma exists just beneath the solid crust of the
Earth in an interior zone known as the mantle
Igneous Rocks - form from the cooling and
crystallization of magma as it migrates closer to the
Earth's surface.
If the crystallization process occurs at the Earth's
surface, the rocks created are called extrusive
igneous rocks
Intrusive igneous rocks are rocks that form within
the Earth's solid lithosphere
Sedimentary Rocks- the processes of burial,
compression, and chemical alteration can modify
these materials over long periods of time to produce
sedimentary rocks
Metamorphic Rocks- A number of geologic
processes, like tectonic folding and faulting can
exert heat and pressure on both igneous and
sedimentary rocks causing them to be altered
physically or chemically. Rocks modified in this
way are termed
Geologic Time
Geologists and geomorphologists describe the
Earth's geologic history through a temporal system
known as the geologic time scale
Hadean Eon represents the time on Earth when life
did not exist
Archean Eon life started and was dominated by
one-celled prokaryotic life forms.
Proterozoic Eon is Eukaryotic one-celled
organisms became dominant
Multicellular organisms ruled the planet during the
eon known as the Phanerozoic
Concept of Uniformitarianism
Catastrophism- alternative explanation for the
origin of the Earth. The prevailing view at that time
was that the Earth was created through supernatural
means and had been affected by a series of
catastrophic events such as the biblical Flood.
William Whewell
 The term uniformitarianism was first used in
1832.
 University of Cambridge scholar
 Who introduced the theory of Catastrophism
Uniformitarianism- is one of the most important
unifying concepts in the geosciences. This concept
developed in the late 1700s, suggests that
catastrophic processes were not responsible for the
landforms that existed on the Earth's surface.
Instead, the theory of uniformitarianism suggested
that the landscape developed over long periods of
time through a variety of slow geologic and
geomorphic processes.
James Hutton
A Scottish geologist who originates the term
Uniformitarianism.
In 1785, Hutton presented at the meetings of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh that the Earth had a
long history and that this history could be
interpreted in terms of processes currently observed.
For example, he suggested that deep soil profiles
were formed by the weathering of bedrock over
thousands of years. He also suggested that
supernatural theories were not needed to explain the
geologic history of the Earth.
Sir Charles Lyell
Hutton's ideas did not gain major support of the
scientific community until the work of Sir Charles
Lyell. In the three volume publication Principles of
Geology (1830-1833), Lyell presented a variety of
geologic evidence from England, France, Italy, and
Spain to prove Hutton's ideas correct and to reject
the theory of catastrophism.
The theory of uniformitarianism was also important
in shaping the development of ideas in other
disciplines. The work of Charles Darwin and Alfred
Wallace on the origin of the Earth's species
extended the ideas of uniformitarianism into the
biological sciences. The theory of evolution is based
on the principle that the diversity seen in the Earth's
species can be explained by the uniform
modification of genetic traits over long periods of
time.
Composition of Rocks
1. Igneous Rocks - produced by solidification
of molten magma from the mantle.
2. Sedimentary Rocks - formed by burial,
compression, and chemical modification of
deposited weathered rock debris or
sediments at the Earth's surface.
3. Metamorphic Rocks - created when existing
rock is chemically or physically modified by
intense heat or pressure.
Most rocks are composed of minerals. Minerals are
defined by geologists as naturally occurring
inorganic solids that have a crystalline structure and
a distinct chemical composition.
Eight common elements found in Earth’s rock
1. Oxygen 5. Sodium
2. Silicon 6. Calcium
3. Aluminum 7. Potassium
4. Iron 8. Magnesium
Elements Group- includes over one hundred known
minerals. Many of the minerals in this class are
composed of only one element. Geologists
sometimes subdivide this group into metal and non-
metal categories.

Sulfide Group- is an economically important class
of minerals. Many of these minerals consist of
metallic elements in chemical combination with the
element sulphur. Most ores of important metals
such as mercury, iron and lead are extracted from
sulfides.
Halides-are a group of minerals whose principal
chemical constituents being fluorine, chlorine,
iodine, and bromine. Many of them are very soluble
in water. The most well-known mineral of this
group is halite or rock salt.
Oxides- are a group of minerals that are compounds
of one or more metallic elements combined with
oxygen, water, or hydroxyl (OH).
Carbonates Group consists of minerals which
contain one or more metallic elements chemically
associated with the compound CO3 . Most
carbonates are lightly colored and transparent when
relatively pure.
Sulfates are a mineral group that contain one or
more metallic element in combination with the
sulfate compound SO4 . All sulfates are transparent
to translucent and soft. Most are heavy and some
are soluble in water
Phosphates are a group of minerals of one or more
metallic elements chemically associated with the
phosphate compound PO4 . Most phosphates are
heavy but soft. They are usually brittle and occur in
small crystals or compact aggregates.
Silicates are by far the largest group of minerals.
Chemically, these minerals contain varying amounts
of silicon and oxygen.
Organic minerals are a rare group of minerals
chemically containing hydrocarbons. Most
geologists do not classify these substances as true
minerals.
Characteristics of Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are produced by the crystallization
and solidification of molten magma. Magma forms
when rock is heated to high temperatures (between
625 and 1200° Celsius) beneath the earth's surface.
The exact temperature needed to melt rock is
controlled by several factors. Chemistry of the rock
material, pressure, presence of gases (like water
vapor) all influence when melting occurs.
Types of Igneous Rocks
Felsic magma- contains relatively high quantities
of sodium, aluminum, and potassium and is
composed of more than 65% silica. Rocks formed
from felsic magma include granite. Rock types are
light in color.
Mafic magma- produces igneous rocks rich in
calcium, iron, and magnesium and is relatively poor
in silica. Mafic igneous rocks tend to be dark in
color because they contain a large proportion of
minerals rich in iron and magnesium.
Intermediate igneous rocks- have a chemistry
between mafic and felsic. Common fine grained
extrusive igneous rock that forms from lavas
erupted by volcanoes located along continental
margins.
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Ultramafic igneous rocks- contain relative low
amounts of silica. These rocks are extremely rare at
the Earth's surface.
Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks
lithification - weathered rock debris that has been
physically transported and deposited. Lithification
is any process that turns raw rock sediment into
consolidated sedimentary rock.
Clastic - During the transport process, the particles
that make up these rocks often become rounded due
to abrasion or can become highly sorted. Some
types of clastic sedimentary rocks are composed of
weathered rock material like gravel, sand, silt, and
clay. Others can be constructed from the break up
and deposition of shells, coral and other marine
organisms by wave-action and ocean currents.
Non-Clastic - types of sedimentary rocks are
created either from chemical precipitation and
crystallization, or by the lithification of once living
organic matter.
Several types of sedimentary rocks are formed from
the lithification of once living organisms.
Limestone deposits can be formed by the direct
lithification of coral reefs, marine organism shells,
or marine organism skeletons. Chalk is a particular
variety of limestone that is composed of the
skeletons of marine microorganisms like
foraminifera; Coal and lignite are the lithified
remains of plants.
Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphism involves the alteration of existing
rocks by either excessive heat or pressure, or
through the chemical action of fluids. This
alteration can cause chemical changes or structural
modification to the minerals making up the rock.
Structural modification may involve the simple
reorganization of minerals into layers or the
aggregation of minerals into specific areas within
the rock.
1. Thermal metamorphism involves the heating
and structural and chemical alteration of rocks
through processes associated with plate tectonics.
This type of metamorphism has two sub-categories:
-Regional metamorphism is the large-scale
heating and modification of existing rock through
the creation of plutons at tectonic zones of
subduction. It involves large areas and large
volumes of rock.
-Contact metamorphism is the small-scale
heating and alteration of rock by way of a localized
igneous intrusion (for example, volcanic dykes or
sills).
2. Dynamic metamorphism causes only the
structural alteration of rock through pressure. The
minerals in the altered rocks do not change
chemically. The extreme pressures associated with
mountain building can cause this type of
metamorphism.
3. Metasomatic metamorphism involves the
chemical replacement of elements in rock minerals
when gases and liquids permeate into bedrock.

Structure of the Earth
The core which is approximately 7000 kilometers
in diameter (3500 kilometers in radius) and is
located at the Earth's center.
The mantle which surrounds the core and has a
thickness of 2900 kilometers.
The crust floats on top of the mantle. It is
composed of basalt rich oceanic crust and granitic
rich continental crust.
The core is a layer rich in iron and nickel that is
composed of two layers.
The inner core is theorized to be solid with a
density of about 13 grams per cubic centimeter and
a radius of about 1220 kilometers. The outer core is
liquid and has a density of about 11 grams per cubic
centimeter. It surrounds the inner core and has an
average thickness of about 2250 kilometers.
The mantle is almost 2900 kilometers thick and
comprises about 83% of the Earth's volume. It is
composed of several different layers
The upper mantle exists from the base of the crust
downward to a depth of about 670 kilometers.
The top layer of the upper mantle, 100 to 200
kilometers below surface, is called the
asthenosphere. The rocks in this upper portion of
the mantle are more rigid and brittle because of
cooler temperatures and lower pressures.
Below the upper mantle is the lower mantle that
extends from 670 to 2900 kilometers below the
Earth's surface. This layer is hot and plastic.
The lithosphere is a layer that includes the crust and
the upper most portion of the mantle. This layer is
about 100 kilometers thick and has the ability to
glide over the rest of the upper mantle. Because of
increasing temperature and pressure, deeper
portions of the lithosphere are capable of plastic
flow over geologic time. The lithosphere is also the
zone of earthquakes, mountain building, volcanoes,
and continental drift.
The topmost part of the lithosphere consists of
crust. This material is cool, rigid, and brittle.
Ocean crust is thin and measures between 5 to 10
kilometers thick. It is also composed of basalt and
has a density of about 3.0 grams per cubic
centimeter.
The continental crust is 20 to 70 kilometers thick
and composed mainly of lighter granite. Continental
crust is thickest beneath mountain ranges and
extends into the mantle. Both of these crust types
are composed of numerous tectonic plates that float
on top of the mantle. Convection currents within the
mantle cause these plates to move slowly across the
asthenosphere.
Isostacy
One interesting property of the continental and
oceanic crust is that these tectonic plates have the
ability to rise and sink. This phenomenon, known as
isostacy, occurs because the crust floats on top of
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the mantle like ice cubes in water. When the Earth's
crust gains weight due to mountain building or
glaciation, it deforms and sinks deeper into the
mantle. If the weight is removed, the crust becomes
more buoyant and floats higher in the mantle.
Plate Tectonics -The theory of plate tectonics
offered new and more scientifically sound
explanations for a number of observed geologic
phenomena.
Collision of two oceanic plates
Oceanic trench- the collision of two oceanic plates,
one of the plates is subducted under the other.
Island arcs- the convergence of two oceanic plates
also creates chains of volcanic islands. Island arcs
are created by the friction of subduction which
creates hot plumes of magma at the interface of the
two plates. These hot plumes of magma then rise to
the earth's surface to form volcanoes.
Collision of an oceanic and a continental plate
The oceanic plate subducts under the lighter
continental plate. Once again, we get the formation
of a trench, volcanoes, and earthquakes. Collision
causes sediment deposited on the ocean floor to be
piled up at the continental plate boundary. The
creation of hot magma plumes also causes the
continental crust to deform producing mountains.
Collision of two continental plates
One of the crustal plates is subducted under the
other producing earthquakes. A mountain range is
produced at the plate boundaries because of the
deformation of rocks. Some of the rocks in the
mountain range may be sedimentary and may have
been set down in an ocean environment that existed
between the two continental crusts prior to collision.
CHAPTER 10: TOWERS OF THE EARTH
INTRODUCTION
What is a Mountain?
-Defined by most geographers as “large natural
elevations of the Earth’s surface.
-Although most mountains seem to look alike, a
closer scrutiny will reveal that they differ in many
ways because they differ in origin.
-Rocks
- Landforms
-Geographic positions
What is Oregeny? -Process of mountain building.
- Ore means mountain
- Genesis means creation
Types of Mountains
1. Volcanic Mountains
2. Folded Mountains
3. Fault-block Mountains
4. Uplift and Erosion
Volcanic Mountains
-Volcanic Mountains are formed when molten rock
(magma) deep within the earth, erupts, and piles
upon the surface.

 -Magma is called lava when it breaks
through the earth's crust.
 -When the ash and lava cools, it builds a
cone of rock.
 -Rock and lava pile up, layer on top of layer.
 Lava changes the landscape
Folded Mountains
-The most common type of mountain
-Fold mountains are formed when two plates collide
head on, and their edges crumbled, much the same
way as a piece of paper folds when pushed together.
Types of folds in Rock
1. Anticline Upward fold
2. Syncline  Downward
Fault-block Mountain
-These mountains form when faults or cracks in the
earth's crust force some materials or blocks of rock
up and others down.
-Instead of the earth folding over, the earth's crust
fractures (pulls apart). It breaks up into blocks or
chunks. Sometimes these blocks of rock move up
and down, as they move apart and blocks of rock
end up being stacked on one another.
Uplift and Erosion
-When the land forms are lifted because of the
forces in the mantle, mountains can grow higher
and larger, flat areas become higher.
-A broad, flat area that has been uplifted is a
plateau.
Shaping the summits
-The shape of a volcanic mountain varies according
to the nature of the eruptions that formed it, and its
conical form may be modified by the shift in the
position of eruption vents and the point of exit of
pasty lava at different parts of the edifice
The Chocolate Hills of Bohol
-The Chocolate Hills are a geological formation in
the Bohol province of the Philippines. There are at
least 1,260 hills but there may be as many as 1,776
hills spread over an area of more than 50 square
kilometers.
-They are covered in green grass that turns brown
during the dry season, hence the name.
Mountains are useful to us in the following ways.
(A) Storehouse of Resources
Mountains are the storehouse of natural resources.
Large resources of minerals are found in mountains.
(b) Generation of Hydro-electricity
Hydro-electricity is generated from the waters of
perennial rivers in the mountain regions.
C) Abundant Sources of Water
Perennial rivers rising in the snow fed or heavily
rain fed mountains are the important source of
water. They help in promoting the irrigation and
provide water for many other uses.
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(d) Formation of Fertile Plains
The rivers that originate in the high mountain region
bring silt along with water to the lower valleys. This
helps in the formation of fertile plains.
What have we learnt?
-There are mountains all over the world, and they
come in all different shapes and sizes.
-They often have mystical significance for local
people.
-The creation of Mountains is to do with forces
below the earth’s surface
-That the temperature at the bottom of the mountain
is different from that at the top.
-That it is important to preserve these environments
as they play a key role in the water cycle, energy
creation, and biodiversity.
Chapter 11: FOUNTAINS OF FIRE
What are volcanoes?
-A volcano is a mountain that opens downward to a
pool of molten rock below the surface of the earth.
When pressure builds up, eruptions occur
Magma - Molten rock beneath Earth's surface.
Parasitic Cone - A small cone-shaped volcano
formed by an accumulation of volcanic debris.
Sill - A flat piece of rock formed when magma
hardens in a crack in a volcano.
Vent - An opening in Earth's surface through which
volcanic materials escape.
Lava - Molten rock that erupts from a volcano that
solidifies as it cools.
Crater - Mouth of a volcano - surrounds a volcanic
vent
Conduit - Underground passage magma travels
through.
Throat - Entrance of a volcano. The part of the
conduit that ejects lava and volcanic ash.
Ash - Fragments of lava or rock smaller than 2 mm
in size that are blasted into the air by volcanic
explosions.
Ash Cloud - A cloud of ash formed by volcanic
explosions
4 types of volcanoes
1.Cinder cone volcano
2. Shield volcano
3. Composite volcano
4. Lava volcano
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and
Seismology (PHIVOLCS)is a Philippine national
institution dedicated to provide information on the
activities of volcanoes, earthquakes, and tsunamis,
as well as other specialized information and
services primarily for the protection of life and
property and in support of economic, productivity, -
and sustainable development.

Ring of Fire
-a string of volcanoes and sites of seismic activity,
or earthquakes, around the edges of the Pacific
Ocean. Roughly 90% of all earthquakes occur along
the Ring of Fire, and the ring is dotted with 75% of
all active volcanoes on Earth.
-It isn’t quite a circular ring. It is shaped more like a
40,000-kilometer horseshoe. A string of 452
volcanoes stretches from the southern tip of South
America, up along the coast of North America,
across the Bering Strait, down through Japan, and
into New Zealand. Several active and dormant
volcanoes in Antarctica, however, “close” the ring.
Volcanic Arc is a chain of volcanoes formed above
a subducting plate, positioned in an arc shape.
Offshore volcanoes form islands, resulting in a
volcanic island arc. Generally, volcanic arcs result
from the subduction of an oceanic tectonic plate
under another tectonic plate, and often parallel an
oceanic trench.
East Marikina Valley Fault -The eastern segment,
known as East Valley Fault (EVF) moves in an
oblique dextral motion. It extends to about 17.24
kilometers (10.71 mi) from Rodriguez to San Mateo
in the province of Rizal.
West Marikina Valley Fault -The west segment,
known as the West Valley Fault (WVF) is one of
the two major fault segments of the Valley Fault
System which runs through Metro Manila to the
cities of Marikina, Quezon City, Pasig, Makati,
Taguig and Muntinlupa and moves in a dominantly
dextral strike-slip motion. The West Valley Fault
segment traverses from Doña Remedios Trinidad to
Calamba with a length of 129.47 kilometers (80.45
mi).
Mt. Pinatubo -is an active stratovolcano in the
Zambales Mountains, located on the tripoint
boundary of the Philippine provinces of Zambales,
Tarlac and Pampanga, all in Central Luzon on the
northern island of Luzon.
-its eruptive history was unknown to most before
the pre-eruption volcanic activities last June 12,
1991.
Mt. Mayon -Mayon Volcano or Mount Mayon is
an active stratovolcano in the province of Albay in
Bicol Region, on the large island of Luzon in the
Philippines.
-Renowned as the "perfect cone" because of its
symmetric conical shape.
Taal Volcano -Taal is a complex volcano located
on the island of Luzon in the Philippines. It is the
second most active volcano in the Philippines with
33 historical eruptions.
-wholly located in the province of Batangas. It is
located about 50 kilometers (31 miles) south of the
capital of the country, the city of Manila
CHAPTER 12: DANGEROUS LAND
-Why that our Country, the Philippines is so
disaster prone.
5 reason why?
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1. Warm Ocean Waters
"It has the warmest ocean temperatures in the
world. We call it the warm pool around Indonesia
and the Philippines," says atmospheric scientist
Colin Price“.You need temperatures above 28°C
(82.4°F) for typhoons to form. In the western
Pacific, the water's normally above 28 degrees.
2. Coastal Homes
A lot of people live on low-lying coastal islands in
the Philippines, with more than 60 percent of the
population living in coastal zones.
Storm surges for landfall of Super Typhoon Haiyan
reached 23 feet (7 meters) in some places and were
more than 16 feet (5 meters) high.
3. Deforestation
In past typhoons, mudslides have killed many storm
survivors in the Philippines, notes meteorologist
Jeff Masters
Hillsides denuded of trees have fewer roots to hold
them together, which can lead to mudslides when
they are hit by sudden huge outbursts of rain.
4. Ring of Fire
The Philippines rests on the Pacific’s earthquake
and volcano Ring of Fire.
Driven by the Pacific's Ocean's crust diving
underneath the continents, the result is earthquakes
and tsunamis striking the Philippines with regularity
5. Underdevelopment
The young, poor population of the Philippines has
increasingly shifted to coastal regions, where
rapidly constructed housing and inadequate
evacuation plans may have played a role in the
Haiyan disaster.
Typhoon
- is the same thing as a hurricane and a cyclone the
difference is in the location. Hurricanes occur in the
Atlantic and Northeast Pacific. In the South Pacific
and the Indian Ocean, the same type of storm is
called a cyclone. But they are all known as tropical
cyclones. But whatever name, these storms can
produce violent winds and waves, torrential rains,
and flooding.
Typhoon emerges in Philippines
1. -Haiphong cyclone
2. -Typhoon Haiyan/Yolanda
3. -Typhoon Thelma/Uring
4. -Typhoon Bopha/Pablo
5. -Typhoon Rosing/Angela
Haiphong cyclone
-the deadliest Philippine typhoon ever recorded.
-was a typhoon that struck Haiphong, in Dai
Nam (now Vietnam), and the northern part of
the Captaincy General of the Philippines (now
the Philippines) on October 8, 1881.
Impact
-With the high waves and winds, rice fields were
flooded, buildings were decimated, trees were
ripped up, etc. By the time the typhoon passed, most
of the town was wiped out. Then, due to the

inability to operate as a port town, Haiphong's
economy also took impact.
-The exact category and strength of the Haiphong
cyclone are not known, as is the case for many
meteorological events and natural disasters that took
place before the 20th century
-It was three times the casualty of Typhoon Haiyan,
the deadliest Philippine typhoon in modern
meteorological records, and is the third
deadliest tropical cyclone in history of the world
Typhoon Haiyan/Yolanda
-One of the most powerful storms ever tracked,
Typhoon Haiyan was a “super typhoon” with
sustained winds of over 150 mph.
-Leyte Island was buffeted by sustained winds of
195 mph and gusts up to 235 mph.
-it occurred after the official typhoon season’s
November 1 ending.
Typhoon Haiyan timeline
Nov. 2: The storm is detected as a low-pressure area
in Micronesia.
Nov. 4: The system is upgraded to a tropical storm
and named Haiyan.
Nov. 6: The storm hits Palau and parts of
Micronesia. After growing in intensity for days,
Typhoon Haiyan became a Category 5 storm,
with wind speeds above 157 mph.
Nov. 7: Haiyan enters the Philippines area; alerts,
preparations, and evacuations intensify.
Nov. 8: At 4:40 a.m., Haiyan makes landfall in
Eastern Samar at peak capacity. It continues to
spread destruction through the Visayas, the
Philippines’ central island group.
Nov. 9: The storm moves out into the South China
Sea, heading toward Vietnam.
Nov. 10: Haiyan makes landfall in northeast
Vietnam, much diminished, and then disintegrates
into bands of rain over Guanxi, China.
Impact
-With wind speeds sustained at more than 150 mph,
Haiyan was classified as a super typhoon. However,
its massive storm surge was even more destructive.
Local officials estimated that Tacloban City on the
island of Leyte was 90 percent destroyed.
-The typhoon’s fury affected more than 14 million
people across 44 provinces, displacing 4.1 million
people, killing more than 6,000 people, and leaving
1,800 missing. In addition, 1.1 million houses were
either partially or totally damaged, 33 million
coconut trees (a major source of livelihoods) were
destroyed, or the livelihoods of 5.9 million workers
were disrupted.
Typhoon Thelma/Uring
-Tropical Storm Thelma was the 28th named storm
of the 1991 season it was considered a minimal
storm and did not produce the strongest of winds, it
did produce torrential rains. An estimated 580.5
millimeters (22.85 inches) of rain fell over the
Tongonan Geothermal Site in the Eastern
Philippines. In the 24-hour period it took Thelma to
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cross the Philippines, as much as 152.4 millimeters
(6 inches) of rain fell over several areas.
-This rainfall resulted in catastrophic events such as
dam failures, landslides, and flash flooding, which
in turn, caused an estimated 6,000 casualties. This
made Tropical Storm Thelma the deadliest storm of
the 1991 Pacific typhoon season. Over half of the
deaths were reported in the port city of Ormoc on
the Philippine Island of Leyte. Here, a 2.4 m (8 ft)
storm surge swept through the area. Three-quarters
of the city was destroyed in the subsequent flooding
Typhoon Bopha/Pablo
-Typhoon Bopha made landfall the evening of Dec.
3, 2012, on Baganga, Mindanao in the Philippines.
With sustained winds above 175 mph, the Category
5storm was the strongest to ever hit the southern
Philippine islands and the strongest to hit the
country until the record-breaking super
storm, Typhoon Haiyan, in 2013.
-A year before Typhoon Bopha, Mindanao was hit
by Tropical Storm Washi. Many families lost
everything and had not recovered when Bopha
came calling.
-Mindanao has been plagued by armed conflict for
decades and is consistently the poorest region in the
Philippines, it also able to withstand economic
losses from disasters.
2012 Typhoon Bopha timeline
Nov. 23: A weather system emerges in Micronesia,
but is perceived as having little chance of
developing into a significant weather system.
Nov. 30: Now a named storm, Bopha is upgraded to
a severe tropical storm. Then, a few hours later it
becomes a typhoon as its wind speed increases.
Dec. 2: Bopha strengthens to a super typhoon with
sustained wind speeds of at least 150 mph. Later it
develops a double eye wall as the whirling band of
thunderstorms that surround the calmer eye
increases. This is a sign that the storm is
intensifying.
Dec. 3: At 9 p.m. Bopha makes landfall over
Baganga, Mindanao, as a Category 5 super typhoon.
Dec. 4 to 6: After raking across Davao Oriental and
Compostela Valley provinces, Typhoon Bopha
crosses into the southern and central regions of
Mindanao, downing power lines and triggering
landslides.
Dec. 7 to 9: Bopha begins to strengthen again, but
as it moves to the South China Sea and west of
Palawan island province, it dissipates.
Impact
Damage caused by Typhoon Pablo amounted to
$1.6 billion.
Typhoon Bopha smashes into the main southern
island of Mindanao on December 3, 2012. Rarely
hit by cyclones, the region suffers about 1,900
people dead or missing.
Typhoon Rosing/Angela
Typhoon Angela, known in
the Philippines as Typhoon Rosing, was a

catastrophic Category 5 typhoon with 180 mph
(290 km/h) sustained winds.
Impact
more than 96,000 houses were destroyed, along
with bridges and roads. The worst impact was in the
Southern Bicol Region. Angela passed almost right
over Manila, causing a significant impact both there
and in Catanduanes. In Calauag, storm surge and
flooding from a dam failure killed 121 people.
Angela caused 9.33 billion Philippine pesos in
catastrophic damage across the Philippines
Earthquake
(also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the
shaking of the surface of the Earth, resulting from
the sudden release of energy in the Earth's
lithosphere that creates seismic waves.
Strong Earthquake emerged in Philippines
1. Magnitude 7.9 in Moro Gulf
2. Magnitude 7.8 in Luzon Island
3. Magnitude 7.3 in Casiguran, Aurora
4. Magnitude 7.2 in Bohol and Cebu
5. Magnitude 7.1 in Mindoro
Magnitude 7.9 earthquake in
Moro Gulf
1976 Moro Gulf earthquake and tsunami took
place on August 17 at 00:11 local time near the
islands of Mindanao and Sulu, in the Philippines. Its
magnitude was calculated as being as high as 8.0 on
the moment magnitude scale.
The epicenter of the great earthquake was located
40 km off the shores of Sultan Kudarat. From the
depths of the Moro Gulf came giant waves that
moved in all directions, slowing down as it reached
the surface to form one of the most terrifying
phenomena known to mankind—tsunami.
Tsunami
Also known as a seismic sea wave is a series of
waves in a water body caused by the displacement
of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or
a large lake.
Signs of the impending cataclysm happened so
quick, giving those in the coastline little or no time
to prepare. Within few minutes after the earthquake,
water started receding as far as 2 km.
According to Solidum, tsunamis in the Philippines
are more dangerous compared to those that occur in
other countries such as Indonesia and Japan
“The tsunamis in our country arrive much faster
than those in Indonesia and Japan because the
source of the earthquake or the trenches is closer to
the shorelines. If the trenches are closer to the
shoreline, then the source of the tsunami will be
much closer to the shoreline, so the distance will
only be short and the lead time will be shorter,” he
explained.
Impact
The sudden movements of the earth proved to be
destructive in Cotabato, where 1,500 people
perished after several buildings were reduced into
pathetic rubble. In Pagadian, a coastal city 80 miles
northwest of Cotabato, the quake was enough to
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wake people from a deep sleep and make them
realize that something unusual was about to unfold.
The 1976 Moro Gulf tsunami serves as a lesson for
local communities to prepare for any disaster.
Magnitude 7.8 earthquake in
Luzon Island
An earthquake of 7.8 magnitude on the Richter
scale, (epicenter at 15.71 N and 121.15 E) jolted the
Island of Luzon on July 16, 1990 at 4:26 pm,
affecting the whole of northern and central Luzon
and part of southern Luzon, including Metro
Manila. There were 18,337 barangays in 13 cities
and 231 municipalities in 23 provinces that were
severely affected. The City of Baguio in the
Mountain Province of Northern Luzon was most
affected and devastated.
Impact
Baguio City
Situated over 5000 feet above sea level, was among
the areas hardest hit by the Luzon earthquake. The
earthquake caused 28 collapsed buildings, including
hotels, factories, government and university
buildings, as well as many private homes and
establishments such as Kennon road, Loakan
airport, Burnham Park and Hotel Nevada
One of the more prominent buildings destroyed was
the Hyatt Terraces Hotel where at least eighty hotel
employees and guests were killed
Cabanatuan City
In Cabanatuan City, Nueva Ecija, the tallest
building in the city, a six-story concrete school
building housing the Christian College of the
Philippines, collapsed during the earthquake, which
occurred during school hours. Around 154 people
were killed at the CCP building.
Dagupan City
About 90 buildings in the city were damaged, and
about 20 collapsed. Some structures sustained
damage because liquefaction caused buildings to
sink as much as 1 meter (39 inches). The earthquake
caused a decrease in the elevation of the city and
several areas were flooded. The city suffered 64
casualties of which 47 survived and 17 died
La Union
Five municipalities in La Union were
affected: Agoo, Aringay, Caba, Santo Tomas,
and Tubao with a combined population of 132,208.
Many buildings, including the Museo de Iloko and
the Basilica Minore of our Lady of Charity,
collapsed or were severely damaged. 100,000
families were displaced when two coastal villages
sank due to liquefaction. The province suffered
many casualties leaving 32 people dead.
Displaced 126,035
Dead 2,412
Missing 321
Injured 3,513
Housing destroyed/damaged Completely
destroyed: 25,305 Partly damaged: 77,249

Total damage and losses (in USD) 695,000
Magnitude 7.3 earthquake in Casiguran, Aurora
At around 4 am on August 2, 1968, a magnitude 7.3
earthquake hit the city of Casiguran in Aurora
province.
Striking at a time when most people were sleeping,
massive loss of lives was inevitable.
Impact
-The Old Philippine National Bank, Another
building that suffered severe damage was the
Philippine Bar Association building. Based on
reports, the columns on the first floor were severely
crushed that the building almost collapsed.
-While buildings collapsed in Manila, several
landslides occurred and a number of ground
ruptures were seen in Casiguran.
-Among the 270 people who died, 268 of them were
buried alive in this building. Of the 261 injured, 260
were from the Ruby Tower as well, some of whom
died later on.
Magnitude 7.2 earthquake in
Bohol and Cebu
-occurred on October 15 at 8:12 in Bohol, an island
province located in Central
Visayas, Philippines. The magnitude of the
earthquake was recorded at M 7.2, with epicenter 6
kilometres (3.7 mi) of Sagbayan, and its depth of
focus was 12 kilometers. It affected the
whole Central Visayas region, particularly Bohol
and Cebu. The quake was felt in the whole Visayas
area and as far as Masbate Island in the north
and Cotabato provinces in southern Mindanao.
Impact
According to official reports by the National
Disaster Risk Reduction and Management
Council (NDRRMC), 222 were reported dead, 8
were missing, and 976 people were injured. In all,
more than 73,000 structures were damaged, of
which more than 14,500 were totally destroyed
Magnitude 7.1 earthquake
in Mindoro
Occurred at 03:15 on
November15 near Mindoro, the Philippines. It had
a moment magnitude of 7.1 and a
maximum Mercalli intensity of VII. It is associated
with a 35-kilometer-long ground rupture, called the
Aglubang River fault. Seventy-eight people were
reported dead, and 7,566 houses were damaged. The
earthquake generated a tsunami and landslides on
the Verde Island
Tsunami
The earthquake generated a tsunami, which affected
Mindoro, the Verde Island, the Baco Islands, and
Luzon. Some concrete structures also suffered
moderate damage in the tsunami. In Baco Islands,
the vertical run-up reached 8.5 meters (28 ft). The
tsunami was also recorded in Lobo. The tsunami
was larger than expected considering the strike-slip
movement of the earthquake.
8
Impact
The 1994 event generated a tsunami which
accounted for majority of the casualties and
wrought significant damage on the northern
shoreline communities of Mindoro. Without this
tsunami, total casualty would have been only 29
instead of 78.
Volcanic Eruption
The sudden occurrence of a violent discharge of
steam and volcanic material.
Volcanic Eruption Emerged In the Philippines
1. -Eruption of Mount Pinatubo
2. -Eruption of Mount Mayon
3. -Eruption of Taal Volcano
4. -Eruption of Canlaon volcano
5. -Eruption of Mount Bulusan
Eruption of Mount Pinatubo
-The June 15, 1991 at 1:42 p.m. local time,
explosive eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines,
was the second largest volcanic eruption of this
century and by far the largest eruption to affect a
densely populated area. The eruption produced
high-speed avalanches of hot ash and gas
(pyroclastic flows), giant mudflows (lahars), and a
cloud of volcanic ash hundreds of miles across.
-Unfortunately, at the time of the eruption Tropical
Storm Yunya was passing 75 km (47 miles) to the
northeast of Mount Pinatubo, causing a large
amount of rainfall in the region. The ash that was
ejected from the volcano mixed with the water
vapor in the air to cause a rainfall of tephra that fell
across almost the entire island of Luzon. The
greatest thickness of ash deposited 33 centimeters
(13 inches) approximately 10.5 km (6.5 mi)
southwest of the volcano. There was 10 cm of ash
covering an area of 2000 square kilometers (772
square miles).
Impact
Most of the 200 to 800 people (accounts vary) who
died during the eruption died due to the weight of
the ash collapsing roofs and killing two occupants.
Had Tropical Storm Yunya not been nearby, the
death toll from the volcano would have been much
lower.
Eruption of Mount Mayon
Mayon, is an active stratovolcano in
the province of Albay in Bicol Region, on the large
island of Luzon in the Philippines.
Eruptions:
1766 July 20-24: The second recorded eruption of
Mayon was a Vulcanian-type of explosion.
Pyroclastic and lava flows destroyed the town of
Malinao and produced major damages in Cagsawa,
Guinobatan, Budiao, Polangui, and Ligao killing 39
people.
1853 July 7: Mayon had another Vulcanian-type
eruption with ash fall, lava bombs and pyroclastic
flows that caused 34 casualties.

1897 June 4 - July 23: The second most destructive
eruption of Mayon featured a violent phase that
lasted for 17 hours. It was a strong Vulcanian blast
that killed 350 people due to pyroclastic flows in
the seashore of the municipality of Sto. Domingo in
Albay.
1993 Feb. 2 - Apr. 4: The eruption killed 77 and
injured 5 people due to pyroclastic flow and lava
flow and lahar that were confined to gullies,
landforms created by running water.
2013 May 6: A sudden phreatic explosion, a steam
eruption without lava emission, killed 5 and hurt 7
hikers.
-The February 1, 1814 eruption is the “most
destructive in terms of casualties and the distance
that the volcanic hazards reached from the crater,”
says the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and
Seismology (PHIVOLCS) director Renato Solidum.
Impact
-on February 1, 1814, the people of Albay
witnessed Mayon Volcano’s most destructive
eruption yet. The eruption killed roughly 1,200
people. World renowned for its almost perfect cone
shape. It has erupted nearly 50 times since its first
recorded explosion in 1616. Those eruptions caused
untold destruction and claimed many lives.
Eruption of Taal Volcano
Is a complex volcano located on the island
of Luzon in the Philippines. It is the second
most active volcano in the Philippines with 33
historical eruptions. All of these eruptions are
concentrated on Volcano Island, an island near the
middle of Taal Lake
One of the more devastating eruptions occurred in
January, 1911. During the night of the 27th of that
month.
Impact
The eruption claimed a reported 1,335 lives and
injured 199; although it is known that more perished
than the official records show. The
seven barangays that existed on the island previous
to the eruption were completely wiped out
Canlaon volcano
also spelled as Kanla-on or sometimes Canlaon, is
an active stratovolcano on the island of Negros,
Philippines. It is the highest point in Negros, as well
as the whole Visayas, with an elevation of 2,465 m
(8,087 ft) above sea level.
Canlaon volcano eruptions
2016, 2015, 2006, 2005, 2003, 2002, 1996, 1993,
1992, 1989, 1988, 1987, 1986, 1985, 1980, 1978,
1970, 1969, 1932-33, 1927, 1905-06, 1904, 1902,
1894, 1893, 1884, 1883, 1866.
Eruption of Canlaon volcano
-It erupts in August 10, 1996
-Three people died when Mt. Kanlaon erupted
without warning, trapping some 24 mountain
climbers near its crater
-British student Julian Green, and two other Filipino
students were killed when they were hit by molten
rocks expelled from the volcano's crater which also
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seriously injured six others, including four Belgians.
Twenty-one people were rescued early Aug. 11 by
air force helicopters which flew to a clearing near
the summit to airlift the trapped climbers, Vargas
said. "We could not speak to them now as most
were weak and still in a state of shock when the
choppers came by to rescue them," Vargas added.
Most of the injured were treated for serious burns,
he said.
Belgian student Caroline Verlinda, 21, said she and
the rest of her group were about to leave a site near
the crater rim when the eruption began. "Suddenly it
ejected ash and stones. I ran to a tree for cover and
saw my friends being hit by falling stones," she told
reporters.
Verlinda was on an expedition to scale the volcano
with a group of 16 climbers, including nine other
Belgians from the University of Notre Dame de la
Paix in Namours. She said their Filipino guide told
them the smoke billowing out from the crater "was
just ordinary."
Kanlaon, one of the country's 21 most active
volcanoes, is a favorite spot for mountain climbers
in the Philippines. But the eruption on Aug. 10 has
forced local officials to suspend climbing
expeditions, Vargas said.
Mount Bulusan or Bulusan Volcano, is the
southernmost volcano on Luzon Island.
Bulusan is generally known for its sudden steam-
driven or phreatic explosions. It has erupted 15
times since 1885 and is considered as the 4th
most active volcano in the Philippines after Mayon,
Taal, and Kanlaon.
Eruption of Mount Bulusan
On November 7, 2010, PHIVOLCS recorded
increased seismic activity at Bulusan Volcano; 24
hours after the active volcano spewed a 600-meter
(2,000 ft) ash column and grayish steam on
November 5, 2010. State volcanologists noted that
at least 10 volcanic earthquakes and four explosion-
type events have been documented subsequent to
the emission of ash and steam at 8 a.m. on Saturday
(5 November 2010).
PHIVOLCS also noted that steaming activity was
characterized by strong emission of white steam
column that reached a maximum height of 200
meters above the crater rim. It warned the public not
to enter the four-kilometer permanent danger zone
from the volcano. People residing near the valleys
and streams were also advised to be "extra alert"
against sediment-laden stream flows in the event of
heavy rains.
Landslides
Refers to several forms of mass wasting that include
a wide range of ground movements, such as rock
falls, deep-seated slope failures, mudflows and
debris flows.
Landslides That Emerged In Philippines
1. -Naga, Cebu landslide
2. -Itogon, Benguet landslide
3. -Biliran landslide

4. -Catbalogan landslide
5. -Pantukan landslide
6. -Guinsaugon landslide
7. -Cherry hill subdivision landslide
Naga, Cebu landslide
On September 20, 2018, a landslide caused by
heavy rainfall and quarrying operations by Apo
Land and Quarry Corporations (ALQC) in Naga,
Cebu, Philippines, killed 78 people. Five others are
missing.
This is the second deadly landslide to occur in the
country in five days; the first occurred in Itogon,
Benguet, in September 15, triggered by Typhoon
Mangkhut ("Ompong"), leaving at least 35 dead.
The landslide covered about 80.12 hectares.
Itogon, Benguet landslide
Strong winds and rains brought by Typhoon
Ompong (Mangkhut) triggered landslides in Itogon.
In Barangay Ucab, a landslide buried a miners’
bunkhouse in the town on Saturday morning,
September 15.
The death toll in Itogon, Benguet, has climbed to 69
Chief Superintendent Rolando Nana said in an
update sent to reporters that of the total number of
fatalities in Itogon town due to Typhoon Ompong,
44 were from Barangay Ucab. Authorities said 41
of the 44 deaths in Barangay Ucab are due to the
landslide, and the rest are from other causes.
Biliran landslide
Landslides triggered by Tropical Storm Urduja
(Kai-Tak) have killed 26 people and 23 more are
missing in the eastern Philippines, authorities said
Sunday, December 17, 2017.
The deaths were reported in the small island
province of Biliran, a day after the storm pounded
the east of the archipelago nation.
"Rocks as big as cars fell on concrete houses after 3
days of continuous, heavy rain," chief inspector
LilibethMorillo, Biliran police information officer,
told AFP as she described a landslide in the
mountainous district of Lucsoon.
Catbalogan landslide
At least 20 people were confirmed dead in a
landslide that hit five barangays in Catbalogan City
in Samar Tuesday following days of rains brought
by tropical storm Seniang.
According to a report aired on GMA News TV's
"Balitanghali", 20 bodies have already been
retrieved from the landslide site, based on the
record of Catbalogan City government.
According to the city government, the site had
earlier been declared a danger zone and that the
resident was advised to evacuate.
Pantukan landslide
January 05, 2012, landslide that struck a mining
community in Pantukan, Compostela Valley and
killed dozens of people was a disaster waiting to
happen, said the director of the Philippine Institute
of Volcanology and Seismology he landslide that
buried a cluster of shanties in Barangay Napnapan
early Thursday, killing at least 25 residents, had
10
been blamed on incessant rains spawned by low
pressure areas in Mindanao the past week.
Solidum said the residents in Compostela Valley
should be educated that landslides could happen
immediately after a heavy rainfall or a strong quake,
or a combination of both, or after days of rain.
Guinsaugon landslide
GUINSAUGON, Philippines, Saturday, Feb. 18
The village of Guinsaugon disappeared Friday. So
did nearly every man, woman and child who lived
in this eastern Philippines farming community of
1,857 people
On Saturday morning, 24 hours after a landslide
sent a wall of mud and boulders tumbling down a
mountain and over the village at a terrifying speed,
rescue workers held little hope of finding more
survivors. Only 57 have been found out of a
population of 1,857.
The search was focusing on an elementary school,
amid unconfirmed reports that relatives of the 250
children and teachers had received cell phone text
messages from survivors. Only one girl and a
woman had been rescued alive nearby.
The landslide left Guinsaugon, which is on the
southern part of Leyte Island, looking like a giant
patch of newly plowed land, with only a few
jumbles of corrugated steel sheeting left to suggest
something else had been there.
"Our village is gone; everything was buried in
mud," Eugene Pilo, who lost his family, told local
reporters on Friday. "All the people are gone."
Cherry Hill subdivision landslide
The subdivision is located in Antipolo City,
Province of Rizal, Luzon Island, and the
Philippines. It is situated in saddle like fashion in an
elevated terrain cut from a mountain leaving the
East and West Flanks.
The landslide occurred at approximately 7:00 PM of
August 3, 1999. Several hours before the event a lot
of residents have evacuated their homes because of
telltale signs of the impending slide. Cracks were
being observed in some houses which continued
progressively, thus, providing ominous signs that
were headed by some.
When the landslide occurred, it was very sudden
and according to some eyewitnesses, occurred
within five seconds. Two loud noises were heard
during the landslide.
resulted to about 60 death toll and 378 houses
buried. The landslide was primarily caused by the
heavy rains of the approaching typhoon Olga. The
subdivision became a death trap when its
foundations were filled with water and the whole
complex slid down the hill on which it was built.
Disaster Preparedness Tips
1. Know what you’ll face
 11

Part of preparation is knowing exactly what kind of Learn how you can be a community leader during a
disasters you might face and knowing what to do in disaster or teach others how to be prepared.
each situation Volunteer positions with local emergency response
2. Learn your area’s evacuation routes and agencies or nonprofits are available in a huge range
shelter locations of capacities
Evacuations are actually pretty common, so it will
serve you well to know the details ahead of time.
3. Know how you’ll reconnect with people who
matter
Consider how you will contact your family or your
roommates.
4. Sign up for emergency alerts and know how
officials will communicate with you during a
disaster
You can get these on your cell phone, if you haven’t
disabled them already.
the best way to learn about emergencies if you are
constantly attached to your phone.
But don’t expect to rely on social media it
exclusively as you may not keep your Internet
connection in an emergency.
5. Learn what to do if you’re caught away from
home
Obviously, you may not be at home when disaster
strikes. In the case of an unexpected emergency,
you should be prepared to react from different
locations, including your workplace or car.
6. Have a kit and know how to use it
This includes food, water, basic first aid supplies
and other emergency equipment that you might
already have
7. Keep in mind people who may need special
preparation
Kids, infants, people with disabilities and seniors
may all need special considerations while planning
for an emergency.
8. Prepare for your pets
The goal of emergency preparedness is to keep the
whole family safe — and that includes our pets. If
you need to evacuate, you should never leave your
pet behind. Try to evacuate to a friend or family
member’s house, as pets may not be allowed inside
public shelters. Keep a pet emergency kit on hand
with food and other important items.
9. Learn emergency skills that can always come
in handy
Know how to use a fire extinguisher or perform
basic first aid. Get trained in CPR or the even
simpler hands-only CPR, which could help save
someone’s life even when you least expect it. You
can also learn how to shut off utilities in your house
in case of a disaster that may damage gas, water or
electrical lines.

10. Find out how to help your community during

a disaster