Periodicity

Structure of the periodic table

• Elements in the periodic table are arranged according to their atomic number (the
number of protons in the nucleus).

• The rows in the periodic table are referred to as periods and the columns are called
groups.

• All the elements within a period have the same number of electron shells — sodium
and magnesium are both in period 3 and have three electron shells.

• There are trends in the physical and chemical properties of elements as you go
across the period, such as a decreasing atomic radius. These trends are referred
to as periodicity.

• Elements that are in the same group of the periodic table have the same number of
outer electrons — carbon and silicon are both in group 4 and have four outer
electrons.

• Since the number of outer electrons dictates how an element will react with other
molecules, elements in the same group will take part in similar chemical reactions
(i.e. they have similar chemical properties).
Blocks

The periodic table is organised into blocks.

• Groups 1 and 2 make up the s block — these elements have their outermost
electron in an s sub-shell.

• The d block consists of the transition elements, which have their outermost electron
in a d sub-shell.

• Groups 3-8 make up the p block since their highest energy (outermost) electron is in
a p sub-shell.

• There’s also an f block consisting of the lanthanides which are found in that landing
strip right at the bottom. Luckily for us, at A-level we don’t need to concern ourselves
with these f block elements.
Ionisation energy

Ionisation energy is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom, molecule,
or ion.

• First ionisation energy: the energy required to remove one mole of electrons from
one mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of gaseous 1+ ions.

• Second ionisation energy: the energy required to remove one mole of electrons
from one mole of gaseous +1 ions to form one mole of gaseous 2+ ions.

The higher the ionisation energy, the harder it is to remove the electron. Ionisation energy
depends on a few different factors:

• Nuclear charge – the more protons there are in the nucleus, the greater the
nuclear charge and the greater the attraction between the nucleus and the outer
electron. This makes it harder to remove the outer electron.

• Atomic radius – the greater the distance between the outer electron and the
nucleus, the weaker the attraction between the nucleus and the electron and the
easier it is to remove.

• Electron shielding – the more electrons located between the nucleus and the outer
electron, the more they will ‘shield’ the charge from the nucleus. This makes the
attraction between the nucleus and the electron weaker, making it easier to remove.

Across a period, ionisation energy increases because:

- Nuclear charge increases (more protons in the nucleus)

- Atomic radius decreases slightly
- Greater nuclear attraction to outer electrons
- No effect from electron shielding

Down a group, ionisation energy decreases because:

- Atomic radius increases significantly (more electron shells)

- More electron shielding
 - Weaker nuclear attraction to outer electrons

So we’ve seen that as we go across a period, ionisation energy increases. This is only a
general rule and there are a few exceptions to this trend:

• Drop in ionisation energy between groups 2 and 3 — the outer electron is

occupying a p orbital rather than an s orbital. P orbitals are slightly further from
the nucleus than s orbitals. They experience a weaker nuclear charge due to the
increased atomic radius and the electron shielding from the s electrons. These
two factors override the effect of increased nuclear charge from having one extra
proton in its nucleus.

• Drop in ionisation energy between groups 5 and 6 — electrons start pairing up in

elements in groups 6-8. Being negatively charged, pairs of electrons repel each
other. This repulsion between the two electrons in an orbital means that electrons
are easier to remove from shared orbitals.
Periodic trends in structure and boiling point

Metallic bonding

• Electrostatic attraction
between positive metals
ions and delocalised
electrons.
• Giant lattice structure.
• Regular arrangement of
positive ions.
• High melting and boiling points — because of the strong metallic bonds.
• Good conductors of heat and electricity — due to the delocalised electrons.
• Malleability — layers of metal ions can slide over each other.

Giant covalent molecules

• Diamond — each carbon atom is bound to 4 other carbon atoms held by covalent
bonds. It is hard, cannot conduct electricity and has a very high melting and boiling
point.
• Graphite — each carbon atom is bound to 3 others in a planar hexagonal
arrangement.
o The fourth electron is delocalised, allowing graphite to conduct electricity. It
has a high melting and boiling point due to the strong covalent bonds.
o Made up of layers held by weak intermolecular forces — allows layers to slide
over each other and is a useful lubricant.
• Graphene — a
single layer of
graphite. Good
conductor of heat
and electricity so
used in the
electronics
industry.
Trends in melting and boiling point

As you go across a period, the type of bond formed between atoms of an element
changes. Since the type of bonding affects how much energy is needed to break the bonds,
this means there are trends in melting and boiling points as you go across the period:

• Metals (left-hand side of periodic table) have a high melting and boiling
point. This increases across the period as the number of delocalised electrons
increase (and metallic bonds get stronger).
• For giant covalent lattice structures, like carbon and silicon, the melting and
boiling point is also high due to the high number of strong covalent bonds
which need to be broken.
• Simple covalent structures (on the right-hand side of the periodic table) have
a low melting and boiling point. This is because the strong covalent bonds
within the molecule stay intact – it’s the weak intermolecular forces that are
breaking when these substances change state.
• The noble gases have the lowest melting and boiling points because they are
held together by the weakest intermolecular forces. They exist as single
atoms (monoatomic) rather than molecules, so they have fewer electrons
than the diatomic halogens. Fewer electrons mean weaker intermolecular
forces.