Density: Mass per unit volume (Kg/m3 – g/cm3) Thermal energy always transfer from hotter regions or objects

hotter regions or objects to colder

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔(𝒈)
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚(𝒈/𝒄𝒎𝟑 ) = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆(𝒄𝒎𝟑) ones. (Heat dissipation)
Thermal transfer processes:
To get mass: use a balance / scale.
To get volume:  Conduction: When a solid is heated, the particles start to vibrate
 Regular objects : Length X Width X Height more. Energy passes from particles to another.
 Best conductors are Metals.
 Poor conductors are called insulators
 Irregular objects: Displacement method
 Trapped air very good insulator.
1. The object is placed into a measuring
cylinder of water.  Convection:
2. The increase in volume of the water is the  Convection is the main way that heat
travels through liquids and gases
volume of the object.  (Convection cannot happen in solids)
 When a liquid (or gas) is heated the
particles push each other
Solids are denser than liquids than gases. apart, making the liquid/gas expand.
This makes the hot liquid/gas less dense than the surroundings.
The hot liquid/gas rises, and the cooler (surrounding) liquid/gas
moves in to take its place
 The resulting motion is called a convection current.
 Radiation: Electromagnetic wave
 Objects float on water because they are less dense than water.  All hot objects give off thermal radiation: the hotter they are, the
 Objects sink in water because they are more dense than water. more they emit.
 The only way in which heat can travel through a vacuum.
Law of conservation of energy: Energy is conserved, meaning it cannot
be created or destroyed. {Energy input = Energy output}

Heat (Thermal energy) : Total energy of the particles in an object (

Joules J)
Temperature: how hot or cold and object is / Average energy of
particles in an object (oC)

Eng. Nermin Nour 1

Cooling by evaporation.  The amplitude of a sound wave is related to its volume (Loudness)
[Measured in decibels db]
All the water molecules in liquid are moving. Some of the molecules have o Sounds with a large amplitude have a bigger volume
more energy. These molecules move fast enough to escape the surface o Sounds with a small amplitude have a quieter volume
of the liquid.
Leaving the rest the molecules with lower average energy.
This is called evaporation.
This makes the liquid become cooler.

Sound

Sound waves are

longitudinal waves. When
you speak, compressions
and rarefactions travel out
through the air.
Sound interference
 Waves reinforce
When two similar (peak to peak) waveforms interact, this is called and
the waves will reinforce.
Result wave
 Become louder (
double amplitude)
 Same frequency

 Waves cancellation
 The frequency of a sound wave is related to its pitch. [measured in When two similar (peak to trough) waveforms interact, this is called and
Hz] the waves will cancel.
o Sounds with a high pitch have a high frequency (or short Result wave
wavelength)  Zero amplitude.
o Sounds with a low pitch have a low frequency (or long
wavelength)

Eng. Nermin Nour 2

Electricity
Difference Between Series and Parallel Circuits
Series
Only one path for current to
flow
The same amount of current
flows through all the
components
If one component breaks
down, the whole circuit will not
work.
You cannot control each
branch independently.
Voltage is shared between the
components.
If Vt is the total voltage then it
is equal to V1 + V2 +V3
If you put more lamps into a
series circuit, the lamps will be
dimmer than before.
Eng. Nermin Nour
Parallel
Current flow through branches.
Current splits at X to branches
and then rejoins at Y
A1= A4
A1= A2 + A3
Other components will function
even if one component breaks
down.
You can control each branch
independently.
Voltage is same for all branches
If Vt is the total voltage then it is
equal to V1=V2=V3
The lamps stay bright if you add
more lamps in parallel.
(Total current increases as more
paths for current are added)
Current: Flow of free electrons. (amperes A)
 Measured using Ammeter.
 Ammeter is connected in series to the
component.
Voltage (potential difference): Is a measure of
the energy given to the electrons in a circuit?
(Volts V)
 Measured using Voltmeter.
 Voltmeter is connected in parallel to the
component.
Adding cells increase the voltage so energy
supplied to electrons increases and current
increases.
Resistance
 As resistance increases current decreases as
it slows down the flow of electrons making it
harder for current to flow.
 Measured in Ohms (Ω)
 Ohm’s Law: V=IR
 With a variable resistor you can change the resistance so you can
control the flow of current through the components.
Nebula: Cloud of dust and gas in space (Hydrogen and helium)
Nebula has gravity and can slowly collapse to become denser and hotter.
If it collapses enough, it can form a protostar. A protostar will continue to
collapse under its gravity and heat up more and more. Once the
temperature and pressure at the centre of the protostar are high
enough, nuclear fusion begins and the protostar becomes a real star.
New stars are formed in some nebulae called stellar nurseries.
3
Moon Formation
Collision (Giant impact) hypothesis – Scientists’ current understanding
is that a Mars-sized protoplanet (named Theia) struck (collide into) the
Earth creating a molten Earth and a debris field in space that coalesced
to form the Moon.
Evidence that supports
 the Earth's spin and the Moon's orbit have similar orientations – this
supports an oblique impact by a large object
 there is evidence in other star systems of similar collisions, resulting
in accretion (debris) discs
 The Moon has a relatively small iron core – the Moon formed mainly
from debris from the outer layers of the Earth which have less iron
than the core.
 The Moon has a lower density than the Earth – the Moon formed
mainly from debris from the outer layers of the Earth which are less
dense than the core.
 Moon Rocks:
 Contains materials that forms quickly at high temperatures.
 Contains less iron than Earth rock.
 Moon rock and Earth rock are very similar.
 Moon rock has less water than Earth rock
Eng. Nermin Nour
Tectonic Plates: Pieces of Earth crust floating on the mantle.
The continents were originally one large mass of land; this split apart,
so the continental coastlines that we see today are the lines made by the
splitting.
How tectonic plates move?
Convection currents. The
mantle is heated by the core;
molten rock in contact with the
core is heated (by conduction);
this expands, becomes less
dense and rises through the
mantle; cooling occurs next to the crust (which is cooler) and the molten
rock sinks again.
Evidence:
 The coastlines of the continents fit together like a jigsaw puzzle
because they were originally part of one larger continent that broke
apart.
 (Fossil Record) Some fossils of the same species are found in
continents that appear as if they could fit together, such as South
America and Africa. This suggests that these continents were once
joined.
 Alignment of the Magnetic materials in the crust. Magnetic
materials in molten rocks line up with the Earth’s magnetic field. The
alignment is different in newer rocks than older rocks / suggests that
tectonic plates are pushed apart by new rock being pushed upward.
 Position of volcanoes and Earthquakes. Most of the earthquakes
and volcanoes occur at, or close to, plate boundaries.
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Thinking and Working Scientifically: Hazard symbols:
The main steps of the scientific method are:
1. Make an observation that poses a problem or question
2. Develop a testable hypothesis based on the observed patterns.
3. Design an experiment that allows for controlled variables and
quantitative data collection.
4. Conduct the experiment and gather quantitative data to
objectively measure the outcomes.
5. Use statistical methods to analyse the collected data and draw
meaningful conclusions.
6. Make a conclusion by evaluating whether the results support or
do not support the hypothesis, leading to a clearer
understanding.
Variables
The independent variable: the only variable that should be changed
throughout an experiment
The dependent variable: the variable that is measured to determine
the outcome of an experiment (the results) Safety precautions:
The controlled variables: any other variables that may affect the results  When working with masses, wires or springs:
o Wear safety goggles when required.
of the experiment that need to be controlled (Kept the same).
o A support stand should be weighted or clamped to
Precision and accuracy
prevent it falling over.
Precision: is shown by the number of significant figures.
o Provide a soft surface, such as a cushion, underneath
Improved by anything falling.
 Use a better equipment that measures small differences.  When using electrical circuits:
Accuracy: is how close the measurement to its true value. o Don't have liquids kept around the apparatus
Improved by o Do not exceed the voltage rating for all the appliances in
 Repeating the experiment and taking the average. the circuit
 Using a measuring instrument with higher sensitivity.  When working with hot objects:
You should plan to include at least two repeats in your experiment. This o Wear safety gloves/ heat proof gloves while handling
will make the results more reliable, and help you to rule out
anomalies.

Eng. Nermin Nour 5

Strength and limitations for a model (Suggested answers)
Strengths:
 Models help communicate difficult concepts.
 Colours to let us see different layers.
 Patterns can be visualised.
 Help us remember key information.
 Another strength is helping us to represent ideas that would
otherwise be hard to explain. ( Show details of …)
 For example:
 We can model things that are too big to see – such as
the solar system.
 We can model things that are too small to see – such as
the particle model.
Limitations of models
 They are simplified versions. (Doesn’t show ……)
 They can be interrupted in many different ways.
 They do not always cover everything in detail and can miss vital
details.
 Models are approximations. ( not to scale)
Types of Data
 Continuous ( Ex. Weight, length, time , temperature,…)
 The type of graph we draw when the data is continuous is
normally a line graph.
 To complete the line graph, a line of best fit is drawn.
 The line of best fit may be:
 A smooth curve drawn freehand.
 A straight line drawn with a ruler.
 Discrete data (Ex. Shoe size, Goals scored,…)
 Discrete data is usually displayed in a bar chart.
 Categorical data (Ex. Colour, Gender,…)
 Categorical data uses words instead of numbers.
 Categorical data is usually displayed in a bar chart.
Line Graph patterns

More examples of analogies used in science

 Flowing water is also used as a model for electricity.
 With the pipes for wires.
 A pump for the battery.
 Different sizes pipes link to the resistance of the circuit.
 The Earth is often compared to the layers of a peach.
 There is a hard core (stone), soft mantle (flesh), and the crust
(skin).
 However there are problems with this analogy for instance the The conclusion describes:
mantle of the Earth moves by convection currents and the skin is  The findings of the experiment
one not broken up into pieces or continents.  The relationship between variables

Eng. Nermin Nour 6

Exam Tips
1. Read the introduction to each question carefully before
moving on to the questions themselves.
2. Look in detail at any diagrams, graphs and tables.
3. Make sure you understand the meaning of the “command
words” in the questions.
Give / State/ Name Recall of knowledge required
Describe Is used when you give the main features
Explain Is used when you have to give reasons
Suggest Is used when you have to come up with an
idea to explain the information you are
given.
Calculate Means that you have to work out an
answer in figures.
Plot/ draw graph Are used when you have to use the data
provided to produce graphs and charts,
4. Look at the number of marks allocated to each question.
5. Look at the space provided to guide you as to the length of
your answer.
6. Circle/Underline the key words in the question to help you
focus on what the question is asking you to do.
7. Ensure your hand writing is clear.
8. Draw circuits using a ruler and ensure there are no gaps.
9. All answers should fit in the space provided. In the very rare
case you need more space put an asterisk next to the question
and then find space elsewhere on the paper and finish the
answer there.
Eng. Nermin Nour
10. If you are stuck on a question simply circle the question
number and then move on. Ensure you have enough time to
answer the questions you do know and then come back to solve
ones you are unsure of. ( Don’t leave the question blank)
11. In calculations:
 Always show your working .
 Write down your answers to as many significant
figures as are used in the number in the question.
 If the question doesn’t state how many significant
figures, then a good general rule is to quote 3
significant figures.
 Don’t forget the units.
12. If you wish to change an answer, cross out your first answer
and rewrite. Do not write over what you have already written.
13. Always try to write accurately using the correct scientific
terms. Candidates often lose marks because they do not use
the vocabulary correctly.
14. Do not use words like ‘it’, ‘they’, ‘effect’, ‘affect’ without any
more explanation. A sentence like ‘It has an effect on the
body’ or ‘They affect the process’ does not say anything.
15. If you are asked to compare something then ensure you
mention both things (e.g. “solarcells are renewable but fossil
fuels are not” is fine as a comparison
but “solar cells are renewable” is not).
16. Once finished ensure you have not
missed out any questions (students
often miss out answers when asked to
add to a diagram/graph/table.)
7