[CHE 239]

PROCESS CONTROL & INSTRUMENTATION

CHAPTER 2
Instrumentation In Process Control

Prepared by:
Noor Naimah Mohamed Nor & Nurul ‘Uyun Binti Ahmad
Faculty of Chemical Engineering,
UiTM Bukit Besi, Terengganu
noornaimah@tganu.uitm.edu.my 1
Contents

2.1 Measurement of Process Variables

 Controlled variables

 Flow measurement

 Pressure measurement

 Level measurement

 Temperature measurement

 pH measurement

2
Course outcome
Ability to explain the principles of measurement of various instruments and the
basic component used in process control system used in process control
system.

Course learning outcome

After completing this course, the students should be able to:

 Recognize and define the common process variables in chemical

industries such as flow, pressure, level, temperature and pH.

 Explain operational principle of various instruments used for various

process variable measurements.

3
 2.1.1
Controlled Variables
4
Introduction

 Controlled variables are the process variables or condition that are

measured and controlled, which are also called output variables.

 In large scale, integrated processing plants, such as oil refineries or

ethylene plants, thousands of process variables are measured and must be
controlled.

 Some example of process variables are:

 Flow
 Pressure
 Level
 Temperature
 pH

5
Measuring device
 Criteria that requires to be considered when selecting a measuring device:
 Identification of an input type.
Example: a measuring device must be able to detect an
instantaneous pressure and must not be sensitive to any temperature
changes.
 Does not change the state of the process to be measured.
 Suitable with the process and visual display unit to be used.
 High accuracy
 High precision
 Has a stable response frequency
 Must not be induced by phase distortion or time lag between input
signal and output signal.
 Has high resistance against outside elements without effecting the
accuracy in certain limits
 Safe to be used.

6
 2.1.2
Flow Measurement
7
 Objective Topic covered
1. Define flow measurement.  Introduction to Flow Measurement
2. Describe the importance of flow  Flow Measuring Device:
measurement.
3. Explain the basic operation, list 1. Differential Pressure Meter
the advantages and 2. Electromagnetic Flowmeter
disadvantages of each flow 3. Vortex Flowmeter
measurement device. 4. Turbine Flowmeter
5. Ultrasonic Flowmeter

8
Introduction

 What is flow??
There are two types of flow:
FLOWRATE: The quantity of fluids passing a point at a particular moment
TOTAL FLOW: The quantity of fluids that passes a point during a specific
time interval.

 Why flow is prime important parameter??

Most process involves moving material from one part of the plant to
another.

 How to measure?? (give one simple method)

 Water flowrate from tap water
 Gas flowrate – filling in a bottle

9
Flow measuring device

 Function:
To determine the flowrate of a fluid or the total flow of fluid that flows
through a point at a certain time.

 A very important sensor in process industry.

 Consists of many types:

 Differential pressure flowmeter - Orifice, Venturi, Nozzle
 Electromagnetic flowmeter
 Vortex flowmeter
 Turbine flowmeter
 Ultrsonic flowmeter

10
Differential pressure flowmeter

 The basic principle:

Measure the pressure change of fluid flow through an obstruction by using
a differential pressure transducer.

 The flowrate of fluid after the obstruction will increase but the pressure will
reduce.
 This meter is popular because there are no moving parts. Therefore this
meter is reliable and easy to maintain.
 The disadvantage of this meter is the obstruction used will cause constant
pressure loss and a pump has to be used to increase the pressure.
Therefore the pattern of pressure change in the pipe needs to be known.
 The sensed pressure difference has to be sent to the differential pressure
transducer to change the pressure to proportionate output current signal
which indicate the flowrate of the fluid through the pipe when calibrated.

11
Example of Differential meter

Venturi
Orifice

Nozzle

12
Orifice plate

 The basic operation:

A orifice plate, metal discs with a hole in the middle is inserted into the pipe
and placed perpendicular to the flow stream. As the flowing fluid passes
through the orifice plate, the restricted cross section area causes an
increase in velocity and decrease in pressure. The pressure difference
before and after the orifice plate is used to calculate the flow velocity.

.
= Pressure differential

Orifice plate

13
Venturi tube
 The basic operation:
When a fluid flows through the venturi tube, it accelerates in the
convergent section and decelerates in the divergent section, resulting a
drop in the static pressure followed by a pressure recovery in the flow
direction. By measuring the difference in the pressures at an axial station
upstream of the convergent section and at the throat, the volumetric
flowrate can be estimated.

 Widely used to measure the discharge through the pipe.

 A converging-diverging nozzle of circular cross section.

14
Flow nozzle
 The basic operation:
When the fluid enters the nozzle, it converges and due to this, its pressure
keeps on reducing until it reaches the minimum cross section area called
throat. This pressure drop is measured using a differential pressure
transducer and when calibrated, this pressure becomes a measure of
flowrate.

 Consist of an elliptical converging section and cylindrical throat section.

 Application:
 Suitable for high-velocity, non-viscous, corrosive flows
 Widely used for high pressure and temperature steam flows

15
Advantages & Disadvantages
Differential Types
pressure
meters Orifice Venturi Nozzle

• Widely used • Higher accuracy • Easy installation

• Easy to use • Lower pressure • Cheaper
• Cheap loss • Very compact
Advantages • Can be obtained • Can be installed • High coefficient
in wide range of vertically, of discharge
diameter horizontally or
inclined
• High pressure • Expensive • Low pressure
loss • Large in size recovery
• Impractical for • High viscosity • High in
system with low effect maintenance
Disadvantages
static pressure • Requires long
• Subject to damage laying length
by water hammer
and foreign objects

16
Electromagnetic flowmeter
 Also known as magnetic flowmeter or induction flowmeters
 Obtain the flow velocity by measuring the changes of induced voltage of the
conductive fluid passing across a controlled magnetic field.

 The basic operation:

The operation is based on Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction.
When a conductive liquid flows through the magnetic field, a small voltage
(emf) is induced. This voltage is proportional to the velocity of the flow and
is accurately measured by two electrodes mounted opposites each other
inside the metering pipe. The magnetic field remain constant through the
DC current flowing through the electromagnetic coil. The fluid has to be
conductive and flows through the non-metal part of the piping system.

 Application:
 It is designed for handling almost all water-based chemicals and
slurries.
 Used in every process industry vertical: water, wastewater, mining
and minerals, utilities, food and pharmaceuticals.

17
 Electromagnetic flowmeter
Coils to generate magnetic field

Electric field induced by

magnetic field

Magnetic field
Electrodes / voltage gage

Conductive fluid
The operation principle of
insertion magnetic flowmeter
Coils to generate magnetic field

Magnetic field

Electric field induced by Electrodes / voltage gage

magnetic field

18
Vortex flowmeter
 Flow sensors that detect the frequency of
vortices shed by a bluff body (called a shedder
bar) placed in a flow stream.
 Also know as vortex shedding flowmeters or
oscillatory flowmeters.
 Used for measuring the flow velocity of gases
and liquids in pipeline flowing full.
 Best suited for turbulent flow with Reynolds
number greater than 10,000.
Alternate
 The basic operation: vortices

A barrier (bluff body) is placed in a moving

stream. As the flow goes around the object, its
alternates creating vortices (swirl of media) from
the top or bottom of the object. The swirls are eg: piezo electric films
created from the increase in pressure and
decrease in velocity on one side of the object
and in decrease in pressure and increase in
velocity on the other side. The frequency of the
alternate vortices is proportional to the flowrate
of the fluid, measured by a transducer placed
just behind the bluff body .

19
Turbine flowmeter
 Consists of a rotor which is axially mounted in
a pipe.
 A permanent magnet is connected to the body
of the rotor (connected to one of the propeller
blades).
 The speed of rotor is proportionate to the flow
rate of fluid through the pipe.

 The basic operation:

When fluid flow through a pipe, it will pass
through a set of vanes and cause the rotary
blade to rotate. Turbulent vanes are mounted
at both end of the pipe and it is use to reduce
the swirling factor. A small magnet is fix onto
one of the rotary blade. This will induce
electric current at the pick-up coil and form
magnetic field. Therefore, every time the blade
rotate, it will disturb the magnetic field formed
at the pick-up coil and produces electrical
pulse at the coil. This electrical pulse
frequency will show the actual flowrate. By
counting the number of electrical pulse in a
certain period of time, the actual fluid flowrate
can be calculated.

20
Ultrasonic flowmeter
 Can be categorized into two types based on the installation method:
 Clamped-on
Located outside of the pipe and there are no wetted parts. It can
easily be installed on existing piping systems without worrying about
corrosion problems. Clamped-on designs also increase the portability
of the flowmeter.
 Inline
Requires fitting flanges or wafers for installation. However, it usually
offers better accuracy and its calibration procedures are more
straightforward.

 Works in general after two different principles:

 The Doppler effect
 The Transit time effect

 Measure the frequency shifts (Doppler effect) or the travelling times (transit
time effect) of ultrasonic waves in a pre-configured acoustic field that the
flow is passing through to determine the flow velocity.

21
Doppler effect

 This method require there is some

reflecting particles in the fluid.
 Not suitable for clear liquids.

 The basic operation:

Use the principal that sound waves
will be returned to a transmitter at
an altered frequency if reflectors
(solid particles or entrained air
bubbles) in the liquid are in motion.
This frequency shift (Doppler
effect) is in direct proportion to the
velocity of the liquid.

22
Transit time effect
 Must have a pair of transducers, placed
on the pipe wall, one on the upstream and
the other on the downstream. Each
transducer having its own transmitter and
receiver. When one transducer transmits
sound, the other acts as a receiver.

 Because the ultrasonic signal must cross

the pipe to a receiving transducer, the
fluid must not contain a significant
concentration of bubbles or solids.
Otherwise the high frequency sound will
be attenuated and too weak to traverse
the pipe.

 The basic operation:

It measure the time it takes for an
ultrasonic signal transmitted from one
transducer, to cross a pipe and be
received by a second transducer.
Upstream and downstream time
measurements are compared. With no
flow, the transit time would be equal in
both directions. With flow, sound will
travel faster in the direction of flow and
slower against the flow.

23
Advantages & Disadvantages
Ultrasonic
flowmeter Doppler effect
Advantages • Obstruct less flow
• Can be installed
outside the pipe
• Low flow cut off
• Corrosion resistant
• Relative low power
consumption
Disadvantages • Highly dependent on
physical properties of the
fluid
• Affected by changes in
the density and temperature
of the liquid
• Unsuitable for highly
accurate measurement
applications.
Principles
Transit time effect
• Obstruction less flow
• Unaffected by changes in
temperature, density or viscosity
• Bi-directional flow capability
• Low flow cutoff
• Corrosion resistant
• Accuracy about 1% flowrate
• Relative low power consumption
• Requires reliability high frequency
sound transmitted across the
pipe.
• Liquid slurries with excess solids
may block the ultrasonic pulses.
• Cannot measured liquids with
entrained gases.
• Not recommended for primary
sludge, mixed liquor, aerobically
digested sludge, septic sludge
and activated carbon sludge.
24
Task 1

 Find the difference and similarities between each of

the flow measurement device given.

 List the advantages and disadvantages of the

devices.

25
 2.1.3
Pressure Measurement
26
 Objective Topic covered
1. Explain the pressure  Introduction to pressure
measurement measurement
2. Describe the importance of  Pressure Measuring Device:
pressure measurement.
3. Explain the basic operation, list 1. Manometer
the advantages and 2. Deflection Type Sensor
disadvantages of each pressure  Bourdon tube
measurement device.  Bellows- type
 Diaphragm
3. Explain the criteria for selecting a
3. Strain Gauge Sensor
suitable pressure measuring
device.

27
Introduction
 What is pressure (P)??
A normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. We speak of pressure only when we
deal with a gas or a liquid. The following are the terms related to pressure:
 Atmospheric pressure - P exerted on a surface by the weight of air
 Absolute pressure - P of having no matter inside space or a perfect vacuum
 Gauge pressure - P of a system above atmospheric pressure
 Vacuum pressure - P of a system well below atmospheric pressure
 Static pressure - P exerted by a fluid that is not moving or flowing
 Dynamic pressure - P exerted by a fluid that is in motion
 Stagnation pressure - P at a stagnation point (v=0) in a fluid flow

 Why measurement of pressure is important??

It is used in almost all industries. Some of its important application are listed.
 For ensuring safe operating condition of boiler
 Helps in determining the liquid level in tanks and containers
 Helps in determining the density of liquids
 Serves as an indication of flowrate in many flowmeter (such as venturi meter,
orifice meter, flow nozzle, etc.)

28
1.Manometer

 Used to measure small and moderate

pressure differences.
 Mainly consists of a glass or plastic U-tube
containing one or more fluids such as
mercury, water, alcohol or oil.
1 2
 The basic operation:
Since the gravitational effects of fluids are
negligible, the pressure anywhere in the
tank (unknown pressure) and at position 1
has the same value (P=P1). Furthermore,
since pressure in a fluid does not vary in
the horizontal direction within a fluid, the
pressure at point 2 is the same as the
pressure at point 1 (P2=P1). The differential
fluid column of height h is in static  The cross sectional area of the tube has
equilibrium, and it is open to the no effect on the differential h. However, the
atmosphere. Then the pressure at point 2 diameter of the tube should be large
is determined directly from equation: enough to ensure that the surface tension
effect and thus the capillary rise is
P2 = Patm + ρgh negligible.

29
2.Deflection type sensor

 This sensor uses an elastic material to convert pressure to displacement

e.g. stainless steel, brass.
 The displacement will be proportionate to the value of pressure exerted.
 Suitable to be used in an automatic control system.
 The main element used is in the shape of Bourdon tube, bellow or
diaphragm.
 The secondary element is the element that will convert the displacement to
electrical signals where the displacement can be detected through
resistivity change, inductance or capacitance.

30
Bourdon tube
 Consists of a hollow metal tube bent like
a hook whose end is closed and
connected to a dial indicator needle.
 Whereas, the other end is connected to
the source of pressure that is being
measured and mounted in such a way
that it cannot move

 The basic operation:

When the tube is open to the
atmosphere, the tube is undeflected,
and the needle on the dial at this state is
calibrated to read zero (gage pressure).
When the fluid inside the tube is
pressurized, the tube will tend to
straighten out which will cause a small
amount of movement at the closed end
of the tube (expansion), hence moves
the needle in proportion to the pressure
applied.

31
Bellows-type
Scale
 Bellows elastic element are made of
brass, phosphor bronze, stainless
steel, beryllium copper or other metal
Hairspring
suitable for the intended service of the Sector
gauge.

 The basic operation:

Motion of the element (bellows) is Connecting
transmitted by suitable linkage and gears Pinion link
gear
to a dial pointer. Most bellows gauges
are spring-loaded that is, a spring
Spring
opposes the bellows and thus prevents
full expansion of the bellows. Limiting the Bellows
expansion of the bellows in this way
protects the bellows and prolongs its
life. Because of the elasticity in both the Case
bellows and the spring in a spring-
loaded bellows element, the relationship Pressure
between the applied pressure and connection
bellows movement is linear.

32
Diaphragm
 Uses the elastic deformation of
diaphragm (i.e. membrane) instead of
liquid level to measure the difference
between unknown pressure and a
reference pressure.
 Contains a capsule divided by a
diaphragm.

 The basic operation:

One side of the diaphragm is open to
the external targeted pressure, Pext and
the other side is connected to a known
pressure, Pref. The pressure difference,
Pext-Pref, mechanically deflects the
diaphragm. The membrane deflection
can be measured in any number of
ways. For example, it can be detected
via a mechanical-coupled indicating
needle, an attached strain gauge or
with many other displacement or
velocity sensors.

33
Advantages & Disadvantages
Deflection types
sensor Bourdon Bellows Diaphragm
Advantages • Low cost • Moderate cost • Cost is moderate
• Simple construction • Delivery of high force • Possesses high over
• Availability in a wide • Adaptability for range characteristics.
variety of ranges, absolute and • Adaptable to absolute
including very high differential pressure. and differential
ranges • Good in the low to pressure measurement.
• Adaptability to moderate pressure • Has good linearity.
transducer designs range. • Is small in size.
for electronic
instruments
• High accuracy,
especially in relation
to cost.
Disadvantages • Low spring gradient • Ambient temperature • Lack good vibration
(i.e. below 50 psig) compensation needed and shock resistance.
• Susceptibility to • Unsuitable for high • Are difficult to repair.
shock and vibrations pressure • Is limited to relatively
• Limited availability of low pressures.
metals and work
hardening of some of
them.

34
3.Strain gauge sensor
 It is a type of resistive transduction.
 Measure the pressure difference between
two locations directly through displacement
of elastic element.
 Available for pressure ranges as low as 3
inch of water to as high as 200,000 psig
(1400 MPa).
 These devices can detect gauge pressure
if the low pressure port is left open to the
atmosphere or differential pressure if
connected to two process pressures.
 If the low pressure side is a sealed vacuum
reference, the transducer will act as an
absolute pressure transducer.

 The basic operation:

Pressure is measured through force that is
exerted on the elastic diaphragm where
the force will be detected by the strain
gauge and resistance change will be
produced. Wheatstone Bridge circuit is
used to detect the change in pressure and
an amplifier is used to amplify the small
output signals.

35
Advantages & Disadvantages
Devices
Pressure sensor
Manometer Strain gauge
Advantages • Simple and time proven • Rugged
• High accuracy and sensitivity • Low cost
• The availability of a wide range of • Good dynamic behavior
filling fluids of varying specific • Available for low and high pressure
gravities. range.
• Reasonable cost • Good frequency response
• Suitable for low pressure and low • Low hysteresis
differential pressure applications. • Good linearity
• Excellent stability and repeatability
Disadvantages • Large and bulky • Tendency to drift
• Need for leveling • High sensitivity to temperature
• Lack of portability • Mechanical noise
• Measured fluid must be compatible
with manometer fluid.
• No over range protection.
• Condensation may present
problems

36
Task 2

 Discuss in group, find all the criteria or practical

consideration for selecting a suitable pressure
measuring device. Each group members must
be able to explain all of the criteria and
consideration.

37
 2.1.4
Level Measurement
38
 Objective Topic covered
1. Define the level measurement  Introduction to level measurement
2. Describe the importance of level  Level Measuring Device:
measurement.
3. Explain the operation of displacer 1. Displacer level sensor
sensor and relationship between 2. Float actuated sensor
Archimedes Principle and level.
3. Capacitance sensor
4. Explain the operation of float-
actuated sensor
5. Explain the operation of capacitance
level sensor and relationship between
capacitance and level.

39
Introduction

 What is level measurement??

A measurement of the height of the free surface of the liquid from a fixed
datum or reference.

 Why level measurement is important??

Level measurement is important because by using the correct techniques, it
can benefits in terms of economic, product’s quality, equipment’s and
worker’s safety and reduce losses.

 There are two types of level measurement known as:

 Direct - easy, simple and is used for the purpose of local indication.

 Inferential - used when remote reading is considered necessary.

40
Example of direct measurement
 Gauging glass
 Transparent glass tube which is connected to a
vessel and the values can be read directly.
 Cheap and easy to install.
 For visible liquid.
 No signal transmission.

 Buoyancy type sensor

 Float of hollow metal or plastic ball is used.
 When fluid increases, the float will rise and
moves the meter’s indicator.
 Simple and high accuracy.

 Static pressure type level sensor

 Hydrostatic pressure is measured directly
through pressure transducer. When fluid
increases, the float will rise and moves the
meter’s indicator.
 Easy installation and high accuracy.
 Connection to D/P transducer is easily expose
to leakage and formation of impurities.

41
Example of inferential
 Conductive type level sensor
 Conductivities changes at electrode are used to
measure the level.
 The tank’s metal body is used as one of the
electrode.
 Suitable for conductive type fluid.
 Cheap and easy to use.
 Probe should be inspected to avoid
contamination.

 Radiation type level sensor

 Used for dangerous, corrosive and high
temperature/ pressure process.
 Based on the optic, ultrasonic, microwave or
gamma radiation principle.
 This method is based on the concept where
signal transmitted from the transmitter will be
absorbed by the sensor (higher level value
means more signals being absorbed).
 For gamma radiation system, radioactive
isotope (e.g. Cesium 137) are located opposite
to detector where it will give the level reading.

42
Level measuring device

 Function:
Detect the level of substance that flow, including liquids, slurries, granular
materials and powder.

 The substance to be measure can be inside a container or can be in its

natural form (e.g. a river or lake).

 The level measurement device falls into two main types:

 Continues level sensor – measure level within specific range and
determine the exact amount of substance in a certain place.
 Point level sensor – only indicate whether the substance is above or
below sensing point

43
Displacer level sensor
 The displacer is cylindrical in shape with a
constant cross-sectional area and made long
or short as required. Standard heights range
from 14 inches to 120 inches.
 Used in level measurement applications such
as knock- out pots, condensate drums,
separators, flash vessels, storage vessels
and receiver tanks.

 The basic operation:

Use Archimedes’ Principle to detect liquid
level by continuously measuring the weight of
a displacer rod immersed in the process
liquid. As liquid level increases, the displacer
rod experiences a greater buoyant force,
making it appear lighter to the sensing
instrument, which interprets the loss of weight
as an increase in level and transmits a
proportional output signal. As liquid level
decreases, the buoyant force on the displacer The buoyant force on an immersed
object is always equal to the weight of
rod decreases with a corresponding weight the fluid volume displaced by the
increase which is interpreted as decreasing object– Archimedes’ Principle
level by the level sensor which then give a
corresponding signal output.

44
Float actuated sensor
 It is used to measure liquid levels in the tank
in which a float rests on the surface of liquid
and follows the changing level of liquid.
 After reaching certain level, switch turns the
device ON & OFF.
 Generally able to handle high-
temperature applications, and sometimes
prove useful for close interface detection.

 The basic operation:

The float rides on the process liquid
surface, precisely tracking liquid surface
motion. Rising liquid level lifts the float,
sliding the attraction sleeve up inside the
enclosing tube and into the magnetic field to
actuate the electrical or pneumatic switch
(signalling liquid presence). Subsequently,
falling liquid level lowers the float, drawing
the attraction sleeve out of the
magnetic field to deactuate the electrical or
pneumatic switch (signalling liquid absence).

45
Capacitance sensor
 A capacitor consists of two plates separated
from each other by an insulating material called
a dielectric.
 Issue in use:
 Corrosion
 Non-conductive tanks
 High temperatures or pressures
 Splashing or bubbles/foam
 Coating or build-up of salts or other
process chemicals

 The basic operation:

One side of the process container acts as one
plate and an immersion electrode is used as
the other. The dielectric is either air or the
material in the vessel. The dielectric varies with
the level in the vessel. This variation produces
a change in capacitance that is proportional to
level. Thus, level values are inferred from the
**The capacitance is directly
measurement of changes in capacitance, which proportional to the height (level)
result from changes in the level of the medium. of the medium

46
 2.1.5
Temperature
Measurement 47
 Objective Topic covered
1. Differentiate between absolute and  Introduction to temperature
relative temperature scale measurement
2. Transform a temperature reading  Temperature Measuring Device:
among the Kelvin, Rankine, Celcius 1. Thermocouple
and Fahrenheit. 2. Resistive Temperature Detector (RTD)
3. Explain the operation thermocouple
and relationship between emf and
temperature.
4. Explain the operation of RTD and
relationship between metal resistance
and temperature.

48
Introduction

 What is temperature??
A physical property of a system that underlies the common notions of hot and cold.

 Temperatures can be reported either in degrees Celsius (oC) or in degrees

Fahrenheit (oF).

 On both the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales, the temperature at which water freezes
and the temperature at which water boils, are used as reference points.
 On the Celsius scale, the freezing point of water is defined as 0 oC, and the
boiling point of water is defined as 100 oC.
 On the Fahrenheit scale, the water freezes at 32 oF and the water boils
at 212 oF.

 On the Celsius scale there are 100 degrees between freezing point and boiling point
of water, compared to 180 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale. This means that 1 oC =
1.8 oF

49
Comparison of temp. scale
 Relative scale
 A temperature scale in which measurements are amounts that are more or
less than a reference amount.
 Other measurements are made relative to this point
 have both positive and negative numbers
 Fahrenheit (oF)
 Celsius (oC)
T (oF) = T (oR) - 459.57
T (oC) = T (K) - 273.15
T (oF) = 1.8 T (oC) + 32

 Absolute scale
 Having absolute zero as the lowest temperature [e.g. On the Kelvin scale the
coldest temperature possible, has a value of 0 Kelvin (0 K)].
 Only have positive numbers
 Rankine (oR)
 Kelvin (K)
 T(K) = (5/9) T(oR)

50
Continue…

51
Thermocouple
 Consists of a pair of wires of different metal
types where ends of each wires are
connected.
 Both these ends are known as “cold-
junction” and “hot –junction”.
 Thermocouples are coated with metal tubes
for protection.
 The basic operation:
Heating the measuring junction of the
thermocouple produces a voltage which is
greater than the voltage across the
reference junction. The difference between
the two voltages is proportionate to the
difference in temperature and can be
measured on the voltmeter (in millivolts).
The amount of current that will be produced
is dependent on the temperature difference **The electric voltage (emf) is
between the measurement and reference directly proportionate to the
junction, the characteristics of the two temperature.
metals used, and the characteristics of the
attached circuit.

52
Thermocouple types

 The type of material used for both wires in the thermocouple determines
the type.

Type Material Typical range

J Iron/copper-nickel (constantan) -190°C- 760°C
T Copper/ constantan -200°C- 371°C
K Nickel-chromium/nickel-aluminium -190°C-1260°C
E Nickel-chromium/constantan -100°C-1260°C
S Platinum-10%Rhodium/Platinum 0°C -1482°C
R Platinum-13%Rhodium/Platinum 0°C -1482°C

 „ ormally a table is provided with each thermocouple to show the output of

N
the thermocouple.

53
Resistive Temperature
Detector (RTD)
 Resistivity of a metal has relation to temperature. (i.e. when temperature increases,
resistance increases – LINEAR RELATION).

RT= Ro(1+αT)

Where R : resistance
R0 : resistance at 0 Kelvin
α : constant (Platinum = 0.004 / oC; Nickel =0.005 / oC)
T : temperature
 The temperature sensor element is a thin wire coil (normally nickel or platinum)
which is located at the end of the tube.
 The range of RTD depends on the type of metal used where the range for platinum
is -100° - 650°C and the range for nickel is -180° –300°C.
 Nickel type RTD is cheaper than platinum but it is having lesser linearity.
 RTD sensor requires a Wheatstone Bridge signal modifier to change the resistance
to standard voltage.

54
Operation of RTD
An RTD takes a measurement when a small
DC current is supplied to the sensor. The
current experiences the impedance of the
resistor, and a voltage drop is experienced
over the resistor. Depending on the nominal
resistance of the RTD, different supply
currents can be used. To reduce self-heating
on the sensor the supply current should be
kept low. In general, around 1mA or less of
current is used.

An RTD can be connected in a two, three, or

four-wire configuration. The two-wire
configuration is the simplest and also the most
error prone. In this setup, the RTD is
connected by two wires to a Wheatstone
bridge circuit and the output voltage is
measured.

55
 2.1.6
pH Measurement
56
 Objective Topic covered
1. Describe the importance of pH  Introduction to pH measurement
measurement
2. Explain standard hydrogen reference  pH Measuring system
electrode, types of meter pH
electrodes, how the pH is measured.

57
Introduction

 What is pH measurement??
Measuring pH involves comparing the potential of solutions with unknown
[H+] to a known reference potential.
 The greater the concentration of H+ the more acidic the solution and the
lower the pH.

 Why pH measurement is important??

Used in a wide variety of applications: agriculture, wastewater treatment,
environmental monitoring, and in research and development.

 A standard pH measuring system consists of three elements:

 pH electrode;

 temperature compensation element

 pH meter or controller

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Measuring pH
(1) Solution being tested 2 8
(2) Glass electrode
(3) a thin layer of silica glass 1
containing metal salts, inside
which there is a potassium
chloride solution 9
(4) an internal electrode 3
(5) made from silver/silver chloride 4
(6) Hydrogen ions formed in the test
solution interact with the outer 5
surface of the glass.
(7) Hydrogen ions formed in the
potassium chloride solution
interact with the inside surface of
the glass.
(8) The meter measures the
difference in voltage between the
two sides of the glass and
converts this "potential difference"
into a pH reading.
(9) Reference electrode acts as a
baseline or reference for the
measurement 6 7

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How does it work??
 The potassium chloride inside the glass electrode (shown here coloured orange) is a
neutral solution with a pH of 7, so it contains a certain amount of hydrogen ions (H+).
 Suppose the unknown solution tested (blue) is much more acidic, so it contains a lot
more hydrogen ions.
 What the glass electrode does is to measure the difference in pH between the orange
solution and the blue solution by measuring the difference in the voltages their
hydrogen ions produce.
 Since the pH of the orange solution (7) is known, the pH of the blue solution can be
figured out.
 When the two electrodes was dipped into the blue test solution, some of the
hydrogen ions move toward the outer surface of the glass electrode and replace
some of the metal ions inside it, while some of the metal ions move from the glass
electrode into the blue solution.
 This ion-swapping process is called ion exchange, and it's the key to how a glass
electrode works.
 Ion-swapping also takes place on the inside surface of the glass electrode from the
orange solution.

60
Continue..
 The two solutions on either side of the glass have different acidity, so a different
amount of ion-swapping takes place on the two sides of the glass.
 This creates a different degree of hydrogen-ion activity on the two surfaces of the
glass, which means a different amount of electrical charge builds up on them.
 This charge difference means a tiny voltage (sometimes called a potential difference,
typically a few tens or hundreds of millivolts) appears between the two sides of the
glass, which produces a difference in voltage between the silver electrode (5) and the
reference electrode (8) that shows up as a measurement on the meter.
 Although the meter is measuring voltage, what the pointer on the scale (or digital
display) actually shows us is a pH measurement.
 The bigger the difference in voltage between the orange (inside) and blue (outside)
solutions, the bigger the difference in hydrogen ion activity between.
 If there is more hydrogen ion activity in the blue solution, it's more acidic than the
orange solution and the meter shows this as a lower pH; in the same way, if there's
less hydrogen ion activity in the blue solution, the meter shows this as a higher pH
(more alkaline).

61
Std. hydrogen reference
electrode (SHE)
 Also called a reference electrode.
 Consists of platinum wire covered with a finely
powdered form of platinum.
 The electrode behaves as hydrogen electrode.
 Standard hydrogen potential is that obtained when
an electrode is in contact with a solution of unit
hydrogen ion concentration.
 The electrical potential E in pH volts developed by a
hydrogen electrode is related to the pH of the
solution be measured
E = Eo – 0.0001984T
T = temperature (K)
Eo = Potential of the electrode in a solution with pH
zero

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Types of pH meter electrode

Type of electrode Characteristics

• Not widely use

• Limited pH<8
Quinhydrone
• Produce error
• Contaminates solution to be measured

• Range pH : 2-12
• Cannot be used for solution containing ions
Antimony
metal that is electropositive with antimony
• Must be mechanically cleaned

• Cover the whole range

• Unaffected by most chemicals
• Potential difference developed across the glass
Glass electrode
membrane is proportional to the difference in
the pH value of two solutions and is measured
by putting electrodes into each solution

63
Temperature compensation
element

 The pH of any solution is a function of its temperature.

 Since pH values are temperature dependent, pH applications require some
form of temperature compensation to ensure standardizes pH values.
 Meters and controllers with automatic temperature compensation (ATC)
receive a continuous signal from a temperature element and automatically
correct the pH value based on the temperature of the solution.
 Manual temperature compensation requires the user to enter the
temperature. ATC is considered to be more practical for most pH
applications.

64
pH meter

 A typical pH meter has two basic components:

 the meter which can be a moving coil
meter (one with a pointer that moves against
a scale) or a digital meter (one with a numeric
display)
 one or two probes inserted into the tested
solution

 Works like a voltmeter.

 Measures the voltage (electrical potential)

produced by the solution whose acidity we're
interested in, compares it with the voltage of a
known solution, and uses the difference in
voltage (the "potential difference") between them
to deduce the difference in pH.

65