Solutions

Q1
a.
i. Computer Graphics:
Computer graphics encompasses the creation, manipulation, and representation of
images or visual content using computers. It involves the use of algorithms and
techniques to generate, process, and display graphical elements such as lines,
shapes, textures, and colors on a computer screen or other output devices.

Computer graphics play a crucial role in various fields such as entertainment, design,
engineering, education, and scientific visualization. They enable the creation of
realistic simulations, interactive user interfaces, virtual environments, and
visualizations of complex data.

ii. Frame:
In computer graphics, a "frame" typically refers to a single image or picture displayed
on a computer screen or other output device at a particular point in time. Frames are
fundamental units of visual information used to create animations, videos, and
interactive graphical applications.

Here are a few contexts in which the term "frame" is commonly used in computer
graphics:

1. Animation: In animation, a sequence of frames is displayed rapidly one after

another to create the illusion of motion.
2. Video: Similarly, in video encoding and playback, a video is composed of a
series of frames. These frames can be either still images.
3. Rendering: When rendering a scene in 3D computer graphics, the term
"frame" may refer to a single image generated by the rendering process.

4. Interactive Graphics: In interactive graphical applications, such as video

games or simulations, the term "frame" may refer to a single iteration of the
main rendering loop.
iii. FrameBuffer:
In computer graphics, a frame buffer, also known as a framebuffer, is a dedicated
area of memory used to store the pixel data that represents the contents of the
display screen. It serves as a temporary storage space for the image that is currently
being displayed on the screen.

The frame buffer holds information about each pixel on the screen, including its
color, intensity, and position. Each pixel in the frame buffer corresponds to a specific
location on the screen, and its value determines the color or other attributes of the
corresponding pixel on the display.

iv. Pixel:
In computer graphics, a "pixel" is the smallest unit of display on a screen or digital
image. The term "pixel" is short for "picture element." Pixels are the building blocks
of digital images and are arranged in a grid to form the overall image.

Each pixel represents a single point in the image and contains information about its
color and intensity. The color of a pixel is typically represented using a combination
of red, green, and blue (RGB) values, which determine the amount of each primary
color present in the pixel. Other color models, such as CMYK (cyan, magenta, yellow,
black) or grayscale, may also be used depending on the application.

b. Laser Printer:
The operation of a laser printer involves several steps, each contributing to the
creation of a printed page. Here's a point-wise breakdown of how a laser printer
works:

1. Electrostatic Charging: The process begins with a cylindrical drum, typically

made of photosensitive material such as selenium or organic photoreceptors,
being uniformly charged with a negative electrostatic charge.
2. Writing the Image: A laser beam is directed onto a rotating mirror or a set of
mirrors. The mirror(s) directs the laser beam across the surface of the drum,
selectively discharging areas of the drum to create an electrostatic image.
3. Developing: The drum then rotates past a toner cartridge containing
positively charged toner particles The positively charged toner is attracted to
the negatively charged areas on the drum, adhering to the discharged areas
and forming a toner image.
 4. Transferring: A sheet of paper is fed from the paper tray or cassette into the
printer and passes through the transfer corona assembly. Here, a strong
electrostatic charge is applied to the paper, which attracts the toner particles
away from the drum, transferring the toner image from the drum to the paper.
5. Fusing: The paper with the toner image then passes through the fuser
assembly, which uses heat and pressure to melt the toner particles and fuse
them permanently onto the paper. This step ensures that the toner adheres
firmly to the paper, creating a durable printed image.
6. Cleaning: After the toner has been transferred to the paper, any residual
toner left on the drum is removed by a cleaning blade or roller. This ensures
that the drum is clean and ready for the next printing cycle.
7. Discharge: Finally, any remaining electrostatic charge on the drum is
neutralized using a discharge lamp or other method, preparing the drum for
the next printing cycle.

By following these steps, a laser printer can produce high-quality printed documents
with sharp text and graphics efficiently and reliably.

c. Touch screen:
A touchscreen can be considered both an input and an output device, depending on its mode of
operation and the context in which it is used. Let's delve into the details of its working and justify
its classification:

1. Input Device: In its most common mode of operation, a touchscreen acts primarily as an
input device. When a user interacts with the touchscreen by tapping, swiping, or dragging
their finger or a stylus across the screen, the touchscreen detects these inputs and
translates them into digital signals that can be processed by the device's software. These
inputs allow users to interact with applications, enter data, make selections, and navigate
user interfaces.
Working: Touchscreens typically employ one of several technologies to detect touch
inputs, including resistive, capacitive, infrared, surface acoustic wave (SAW), and optical
imaging. For example:
• Capacitive Touchscreen: In a capacitive touchscreen, a layer of capacitive
material covers the surface of the display. When a conductive object, such as a
finger, touches the screen, it creates a change in capacitance at that point.
• Resistive Touchscreen: A resistive touchscreen consists of two layers separated by a
small gap. When the screen is touched, the top layer is pressed down and makes contact
with the bottom layer, completing a circuit. Regardless of the technology used, the
touchscreen translates touch inputs into digital signals that are sent to the device's
processor for further processing.
 2. Output Device: While primarily an input device, a touchscreen can also serve as an
output device in certain scenarios. For example, in some interactive kiosks, information
terminals, or digital signage systems, the touchscreen may display dynamic content, such
as menus, advertisements, or interactive maps. In these cases, the touchscreen acts as
both an input device (allowing users to interact with the displayed content) and an output
device (displaying visual information to users).
Working: In output mode, the touchscreen functions similarly to a traditional display,
presenting visual content to users. The device's software controls what is displayed on the
screen, and users interact with the content using touch inputs.

Q2
a.
Both the Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) algorithm and Bresenham's line tracing
algorithm are used for line drawing in computer graphics. Here's a comparison of the
two algorithms:

1. Algorithm Complexity:
• DDA Algorithm: The DDA algorithm involves floating-point arithmetic
operations, typically requiring division to calculate the slope of the line
and multiplication to incrementally calculate the next pixel position. As
a result, it can be computationally expensive, especially on systems
without hardware support for floating-point operations.
• Bresenham's Algorithm: Bresenham's algorithm uses only integer
arithmetic operations such as addition and subtraction to determine
the pixel positions along the line. It is generally more efficient than the
DDA algorithm and requires fewer computational resources.
2. Accuracy:
• DDA Algorithm: The DDA algorithm can produce accurate results for
lines with moderate slopes but may suffer from rounding errors and
precision issues, especially for lines with steep slopes or when drawing
long lines. This can result in jagged or uneven lines.
• Bresenham's Algorithm: Bresenham's algorithm is known for its
accuracy and ability to produce smooth and precise lines, even for lines
with steep slopes or when drawing long lines. It minimizes rounding
errors and ensures that the pixels are positioned optimally to create a
straight line.
3. Hardware Requirements:
 • DDA Algorithm: The DDA algorithm relies on floating-point arithmetic,
which may require additional hardware support for efficient
computation, especially on older or low-end hardware.
• Bresenham's Algorithm: Bresenham's algorithm uses only integer
arithmetic operations, making it well-suited for implementation on a
wide range of hardware platforms, including those without floating-
point support.
4. Line Drawing Direction:
• DDA Algorithm: The DDA algorithm may suffer from directional bias,
meaning that the line may appear thicker or thinner depending on its
orientation relative to the pixel grid.
• Bresenham's Algorithm: Bresenham's algorithm is inherently
symmetrical and does not suffer from directional bias, ensuring
consistent line thickness regardless of the line's orientation.

b. Smooth line and why?

Bresenham's line drawing algorithm generally produces smoother lines compared to
the Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) algorithm. The smoothness of the lines drawn
by Bresenham's algorithm is due to its ability to minimize rounding errors and
accurately position pixels along the line.

Here's why Bresenham's algorithm tends to draw smoother lines:

1. Integer Arithmetic: Bresenham's algorithm relies solely on integer arithmetic

operations such as addition, subtraction, and comparison. This eliminates the
need for costly floating-point calculations, reducing the accumulation of
rounding errors that can lead to jagged or uneven lines.
2. Optimal Pixel Positioning: Bresenham's algorithm determines the optimal
pixel positions along the line by calculating the error between the ideal line
path and the closest pixel positions. By intelligently selecting which pixels to
plot, the algorithm ensures that the line follows a straight path and minimizes
deviations from the desired trajectory.
3. Symmetrical Algorithm: Bresenham's algorithm is inherently symmetrical,
meaning that it treats both positive and negative slopes of the line in a
consistent manner. This symmetry ensures that the algorithm produces
consistent line thickness and appearance regardless of the line's orientation or
direction.
4. Efficiency: Bresenham's algorithm is highly efficient and requires fewer
computational resources compared to the DDA algorithm. Its simplicity and
 effectiveness make it well-suited for real-time rendering and applications with
strict performance requirements.

C. Mid-point Numerical

Q3 Numerical(book)

Q4.
a. (Book)-transformation
b.
c. Shear transformation (book)

Q5. (Remember the headings 1 mark’s only)

To extract the smallest individual piece of a video clip, which is a frame, you can
follow these steps on a desktop computer:

1. Use Video Editing Software: You can use video editing software like Adobe
Premiere Pro, Final Cut Pro, or even free software like Shotcut or DaVinci
Resolve. These programs allow you to import your video clip and then
navigate to the specific frame you want to extract.
2. Manually Capture Frame: While playing the video clip in the video editing
software, pause it at the desired frame. Most video editing software allows
you to navigate frame by frame, so you can find the exact frame you want to
extract.
3. Export as Image: Once you've paused the video on the desired frame, you
can export that frame as an image file. In most video editing software, there
should be an option to export the current frame as an image. You can usually
choose the format (e.g., JPEG, PNG) and the location where you want to save
the image.
4. Using Command Line: If you're comfortable with command line tools, you
can also use ffmpeg, a powerful multimedia processing tool. You can use
ffmpeg to extract frames from a video clip. Here's an example command to
extract a single frame from a video:

Command line:
ffmpeg -i input_video.mp4 -ss 00:00:05 -
vframes 1 output_frame.jpg