MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD INFINITE SET

Midterm Reviewer • a set whose elements are unlimited or uncountable

• last element cannot be specified

Lesson 4: Language of Sets and Logical Connectives Example:

A = {x|x is a set of whole numbers}
or A = {0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,…}
SET THEORY
• the branch of Mathematics that studies sets or the
mathematical science of the infinite UNITE SET
• George Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor • a set with only one element
• A = {1}

SET
• well-defined collection of objects EMPTY/NULL SET
• the objects are called the elements or members • a unique set with no element
• the symbol 𝜖 is used to denote that an object is an • A = { } or ∅
element of a set
EXAMPLE: THE CARDINALITY NUMBER OF A SET
In a set A = {1, 2, 3}, • number of elements or members in the set
we can say that 1 ∈ A, but ∉ of A • denoted by 𝒏(A)
• for finite sets A, 𝑛(A) is the number of elements of A
• for infinite sets A, write 𝑛(A) = ∞
WAYS TO REPRESENTS SET
Roster Method or Tabulation Method is a method where
the set are enumerated or listed and each elements are EQUAL SETS
separated by comma • two sets are equal if they have the same elements
• since both sets has exactly the same elements, hence,
Example: set A is equal to set B or it is denoted by A = B
A = {a, e, i, o, u}
Example:
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
B = {5, 4, 3, 2, 1}
Rule Method or Set Builder Notation is a method that is
used to describe the elements or members of the set
Example: EQUIVALENT SETS
A = {x|x is a collection of vowel letters} • two sets are equivalent if they have the same number
of elements
• both sets have the same number of elements,
FINITE SET cardinality
• it is a set whose elements are limited or countable • set A is equivalent to set B, denoted by A ≈ B
• last element can be identified
Example:
Example: A = {r, e, a, d}
A = {x|x is a positive integer less than 10} B = {1, 2, 0, 7}
or A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
UNIVERSAL SET DIFFERENCE OF SETS
• set that contains everything • the set of all elements of A that are not elements of B
• denoted by U • denoted as A – B
• A set ∪ that includes all of the elements under
Example:
consideration in a particular discussion
A = {a, b, c} and B = {c, d, e}
then, A – B = {a, b}

SUBSET
• pieces of elements of a set
EXAMPLE
• denoted as A ⊆ B
• 100 college students were intertwined
• 28 took PE
UNION OF SETS • 31 took Biology
• a set containing all elements that are in A or in B, or • 42 took Mathematics
possibly both • 9 took PE and Biology
• denoted by A ∪ B • 6 took Biology and Math
• the word “or” is inclusive • 4 took all three courses

Example:
A = {1, 2} and B = {2, 3}
Questions:
then, A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3}
1. How many students took none of the three courses?
2. How many students took PE, but not Biology or
Mathematics?
INTERSECTION OF SETS 3. How many students took Biology but not
• the set that contains all the elements that are common Mathematics?
to both sets
• denoted as A ∩ B
• the word “and” is inclusive
Example:
A = {1, 2} and B = {2, 3}
then A ∩ B = {2}

VENN DIAGRAMS
• diagrams that make use of geometric shapes to show
relationship between them

COMPLEMENT OF A SET
• a set that contains the elements present in the
universal set but not in set A
• denoted as 𝑨′
Example:
U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g} and A = {a, b, c, d, e}
Answers:
then 𝐴′ = {f, g}
1. How many students took none of the three courses?
20
2. How many students took PE, but not Biology or
Mathematics? 13
3. How many students took Biology but not
Mathematics? 5
LOGIC DISJUNCTION
• a discipline that deals with the methods of reasoning • the disjunction of the proposition p and q is the
• study of how to evaluate arguments and reasoning compound proposition ‘p or q’
• the disjunction of two propositions is false when both
p and q are false; otherwise, it is true
Logic Reasoning used on mathematics to prove • denoted as p ∨ q
theorems, to verify correctness of programs (in computer
P Q P∨𝑸
science) and to prove theorems
T T T
Propositions a statement that is either true or false, but T F T
not both F T T
Truth Value is the truth and falsity of the proposition F F F

Propositional Variable a variable which is used to

represent a proposition EXCLUSIVE OR
• the disjunction, exclusive or, is true only when one of
Formal Propositional Variable is written using
the proposition is true; otherwise, it is false
propositional logic notation such as p, q, and r are used
• denoted as p ⊕ q
to represent propositions
Logic Connectives the mathematical equivalent of a P Q P⊕𝑸
conjunction in English T T F
• And = ∧ T F T
• Or = ∨ F T T
Compound Propositions a proposition of two or more F F F
simple propositions connected by logical connectives
Truth Table that shows the truth value of a compound SUMMARY TRUTH TABLE
statement for all possible truth values of its simple
P Q P∧𝑸 P∨𝑸 P⊕𝑸
proposition
T T F F F
T F F T T
CONJUNCTION F T F T T
• the conjunction of the proposition p and q is the F F T T F
compound proposition ‘p and q’
• the conjunction of two propositions is true only if
both p and q are true; otherwise, it is false NEGATION
• denoted as p ∧ q • the truth value of the negation of a proposition is
always the reverse of the truth value of the original
P Q P∧𝑸
proposition
T T T • denoted as ¬p or ~q
T F F
P ¬P or ~P
F T F
F F F T F
F T
IMPLICATIONS Lesson 5: Problem Solving and Reasoning
• the statement ‘if p then q’
• p is the hypothesis and q is the conclusion
• denoted as p → q INDUCTIVE REASONING
• uses specific examples to reach a general conclusion
P Q P→𝑸
• Conjecture the conclusion formed by using inductive
T T T reasoning; an idea that may or may not be correct
T F T • Counterexample a method that disproves a conjecture
F T F
F F T
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
• uses general procedures and principles to reach a
Converse conclusion
• denoted as q → p • process of reaching a general conclusion by applying
Inverse general assumptions, procedures, or principles
• denoted as ¬p → ¬q
Contrapositive LOGIC PUZZLE
• denoted as ¬q → ¬p • can be solved by using deductive reasoning and a
chart that enables us to display the given information in
a visual manner
BICONDITIONALS
• the statement ‘p if and only if q’ Example:
• the phrase ‘if and only if’ can be rewritten as ‘iff’ Each one–Ann, Enya, Alvin and Johnny have different
• denoted as p ↔ q favorite color among red, blue, green, and orange. No
• also known as good definition person’s name contains the same number of letters as
• for a statement to be a good definition, the his/her favorite color. Alvin and the boy who likes blue
implication and its converse must be both true; live in different parts of town. Red is the favorite color
otherwise, it is not a good definition of one of the girls. What is each person’s favorite color?

Red Blue Green Orange

P Q P↔𝑸
Ann ✗ ✗ ✓ ✗
T T T
Enya ✓ ✗ ✗ ✗
T F F
Alvin ✗ ✗ ✗ ✓
F T F Johnny ✗ ✓ ✗ ✗
F F T

LOGIC & BIT OPERATORS

INDUCTIVE VS DEDUCTIVE

Bit is a symbol with two possible values, 0 and 1 Inductive Deductive

• 1 represents True • Reaching conclusions • Reaching conclusions
• 0 represents False based on a series of based on previously
observations known facts
Bit String a sequence of zero or more bits; the length of
this string is the number of bits in the string • Conjecture may or • Conjecture are correct
may not be valid or and valid or certain
x y x∨𝒚 x∧𝒚 x⊕𝒚 uncertainty
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 0
GEORGE POLYA (1887-1985) Step 4: Review the Solution
• the father of problem-solving
• Look for an easier • Can the solution be
• a mathematics educator who strongly believed that
solution extended to a more
the skill of problem solving can be taught
• Does the answer make general case?
sense? • Ensure that all the
• Check the results in the conditions related to the
POLYA’S FOUR-STEP PROBLEM SOLVING original problem problem are met
STRATEGY • Interpret the solution • Determine whether
with the facts of the there is another method
Step 1: Understand the Problem problem of finding the solution
• Recheck any • Ensure the consistency
• What is the goal? • Is there enough
computations involved in of the solution in the
• What is being asked? information?
the solution context of the problem
• What is the condition? • Can you draw a figure
• What sort of a problem to illustrate the problem?
is it? • Is there a way to restate
• What is known or the problem in your own
unknown? words? Lesson 6: The Nature of Statistics

Step 2: Devise a Plan DATA MANAGEMENT

• development, execution, and supervision of plans,
• Act it out • Write an equation or policies, programs, and practices that control, protect,
• Be systematic model deliver, and enhance the value of data and information
• Work backwards • Look for a assets
• Consider special cases pattern/patterns • administrative process by which the required data is
• Eliminate possibilities • Use direct or indirect
acquired, validated, stored, protected, and processed, and
• Perform an experiment reasoning
by which its accessibility, reliability, and timeliness is
• Draw a picture/diagram • Solve a simple version
• Make a list or of the problem ensured to satisfy the need of the data users
table/chart • Guess and check your
• Use a variable, such as answer (trial and error)
x STATISTICS
• Look for a • status meaning “state”
formula/formulas • science that deals with the collection, classification,
analysis, and interpretation of numerical facts or data, in
Step 3: Carry Out the Plan such a way that valid conclusions and meaningful
predictions can be drawn from them
• Be patient • Try another strategy if
• Work carefully the first one isn’t working General Purposes of Statistics
• Modify the plan or try a • Keep a complete and • used to organize and summarize the information so
new plan accurate record of your that the researcher can see what happened in the research
• Keep trying until work study and can communicate the results to others
something works • Be determined and • help the researcher to answer the questions that
• Implement the strategy don’t get discouraged if initiated the research by determining exactly what
and strategies in step 2 the plan does not work general conclusions are justified based on the specific
immediately results that were obtained
METHODS OF DATA GATHERING
Direct or Interview Method
• a person-to-person encounter between the
interviewee and interviewer
Indirect or Questionnaire Method
• technique in which a questionnaire is used to elicit
the information or data needed
Registration Method
• obtains data from the records of government agency
authorized by law to keep such data or information and
made these available to researchers
Observation Method
• technique in which data particularly those pertaining
to the behaviors of individuals or group of individuals
during the given situation
• to see, hear, feel, taste, and smell
• also used when the respondents cannot read nor write
Experimental Method
• a system used to gather data from the results of
performed series of experiments on some controlled and
experimental variables
• commonly used in scientific inquiries
Independent Variable (IV) systematically manipulated
by the investigator
Dependent variable (DV) investigator measures to
determine the effect of the independent variable
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
• the data from the experiment force a conclusion
consonant with reality
• has a built-in safeguard for ensuring that truth
assertions of any sort about reality must conform to what
is demonstrated to be
objectively true about the
phenomena before the
assertions are given the status
of scientific truth
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
• involves the collection and classification of data
Example:
▸ A bowler wants to find his bowling average for the
past 10 games
▸ A teacher wishes to determine the percentage of
students who passed the examination
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
• involves the analysis and interpretation of data
Example:
▸ A manager would like to predict based on previous
years’ sales, the sales performance of a company for the
next five years
▸ A politician would like to estimate, based on an
opinion poll, his chance for winning in the upcoming
senatorial election
POPULATION
• the set of measurements corresponding to the entire
collection of units about which the information is sought
• the group of objects/subjects about which
conclusions are to be drawn
Example:
▸The scores of entire students of Senior High School
in EAC-Cavite
▸ All children of any age who have older or younger
siblings in Barangay Lucsuhin
SAMPLE
• a set of individuals selected from a population
• usually intended to represent the population in a
research study
Example:
▸ The scores of 50 students of Senior High School in
EAC-Cavite
▸ The 40 children who actually participated in one
specific study about siblings in Barangay Lucsuhin
SAMPLE SIZE STATISTIC
• numerical value that describes a sample
Sample Determination Formula • usually derived from measurements of the individuals
𝑁
•𝑛= in the sample
1+𝑁ⅇ 2
• n = sample size
• N = population size
• e = desired margin of error (usually 0.05 or 5%) SAMPLING ERROR
• naturally occurring discrepancy, or error, that exists
between simple statistic and the corresponding
EXAMPLE: population parameter

Compute the sufficient sample size of a target population VARIABLE

consisting of 1, 524 sixth-graders in a given school • any property or characteristic of some event, object,
district using sample determination formula or person that may have different values at different
times depending on the conditions
Given:
N = 1, 524 QUALITATIVE VARIABLE
e = 0.05 • describes an object or individual by placing the
𝑁
object or individual into a category or group
Formula: 𝑛 = 1+𝑁ⅇ 2
QUANTITATIVE VARIABLE
Solution: • variable has a value or numerical measurement for
1524 which operation can be applied
n=
1+[1524(0.05)2 ] • Continuous Variables infinite number of values and
1524 can be associated with points on a continuous line
n = 1+[1524(0.0025 )]
interval (height, weight, volume)
Answer: n = 316.84 ≈ 317 • Discrete Variables finite number of possible values
or a countable number of possible values (number of
students, number of books, number of patients)
DATA
• measurements or observations
• Data Set a collection of measurements or TYPES OF VARIABLE
observations
• measurements of the dependent variable that are Variable
made on the subjects of an experiment

Qualitative Quantitative
(categorical) (numerical)
DATUM
• a single measurement or observation (score or raw
score) Discrete Continuous
• data as originally measured

PARAMETER
• numerical value that describes a population
• usually derived from measurements of the individuals
in the population
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENTS BAR GRAPH
• displays data by using bars of equal width on a grid
Nominal
• used for comparison
• the numbers in the variable are used only to classify
• displays a bar for each category with the length of
the data (words, letters, and alpha-numeric symbols) each bar representing the frequency of that category
• attributes are only named; weakest
Ordinal
• the numbers indicate an order PARETO CHART
• attributes can be ordered • a bar graph ordered from highest to lowest frequency
Interval
• the numbers tell the distances between the
measurements in addition to the classification and CIRCLE GRAPHY (PIE CHART)
• displays data using a circle divided into sectors
ordering
• shows how data represent portions of one whole or
• distance is meaningful
one group
Ratio • each sector is represented by percent (%)
• has an absolute zero that is meaningful

BROKEN LINE GRAPH

CLASSIFICATION OF NUMERICAL DATA • shows data points joined by line segments to show
trends over time
Numerical
Data

CONTINUOUS LINE GRAPH

Qualitative Quantitative • the points on the line between the plotted points also
have meaning
Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio • best fit graph where a straight line is drawn to fit the
data points
• independent variable is on the x-axis
• the dependent variable is on the y-axis
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
• presents the score values and their frequency of
occurrence
• when presented in a table, the score values are listed PICTOGRAPH
in rank order, with the lowest score value usually at the • uses pictures and symbols to display data
bottom of the table • each picture or symbol can represent more than one
object
• a key tells what each picture represents
CONSTRUCTING A FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION OF GROUPED SCORES
SCATTER PLOTS
1. Find the range of the scores • a graph of data that is a set of points
• Range = highest score – lowest score
2. Determine the tentative number of classes (K)
• K = 1 + [3.332(log N)]
3. Determine the width of each class interval (i)
• i = R/K
4. List the interval, lowest score value at the
bottomn
5. Tally the raw score value at the bottom
6. Add the tallies for each interval to obtain the
interval frequency