Lecture 4 ~ Building Materials

Lecture Intended Learning Outcomes:

On completion of the Lecture, students are expected to be able to:

 Have a basic understanding on cement, concrete, chemical admixtures and reinforcement bar;
 Identify the causes of cracks in concrete and the ways to repair it.

A. Cement 水泥

Cement is a binder, a substance used in construction that sets and hardens and can bind other materials together.
Cement is often supplied as a powder, which is mixed with other materials and water. Cements used in
construction are usually inorganic; often lime based, and can be characterized as being either hydraulic or non-
hydraulic, depending upon the ability of the cement to set in the presence of water.

 Non-hydraulic cement will not set in wet conditions or underwater; rather, it sets as it dries and reacts with
carbon dioxide in the air. It is resistant to attack by chemicals after setting.

 Hydraulic cements (e.g., Portland cement) set and become adhesive due to a chemical reaction between the
dry ingredients and water. The chemical reaction results in mineral hydrates that are not very water-soluble
and so are quite durable in water and safe from chemical attack. This allows setting in wet condition or
underwater and further protects the hardened material from chemical attack. Portland cement is the most
common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and many plasters.

The most important types of cement are used as a component in the production of mortar in masonry, and of
concrete, which is a combination of cement and an aggregate to form a strong building material.

B. Concrete 混凝土

Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse aggregate bonded together with fluid cement that hardens
over time. Most concretes used are lime-based concretes such as Portland cement concrete or concretes made
with other hydraulic cements. When aggregate is mixed together with dry Portland cement and water, the mixture
forms a fluid mass that is easily molded into shape. The cement reacts chemically with the water and other
ingredients to form a hard matrix that binds the materials together into a durable stone-like material that has many
uses. Most concrete is poured with reinforcing materials (such as rebar) embedded to provide tensile strength,
yielding reinforced concrete.

Many types of concrete are available, distinguished by the proportions of the main ingredients below. In this way
or by substitution for the cementitious and aggregate phases, the finished product can be tailored to its application.
Strength, density, as well chemical and thermal resistance are variables.

 Aggregate consists of large chunks of material in a concrete mix, generally a coarse gravel or crushed rocks
such as limestone, or granite, along with finer materials such as sand.

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 Cement, most commonly Portland cement, is associated with the general term "concrete." A range of
materials can be used as the cement in concrete.
 Water is mixed with the dry powder and aggregate, which produces a semi-liquid that workers can shape,
typically by pouring it into a form. The concrete solidifies and hardens through a chemical process called
hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the other components together, creating a robust
stone-like material.
 Chemical admixtures are added to achieve varied properties. These ingredients may accelerate or slow down
the rate at which the concrete hardens, and impart many other useful properties including increased tensile
strength, entrainment of air, and/or water resistance. The common types of admixtures are as follows:

 Accelerators speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete. Accelerating admixtures are especially
useful for modifying the properties of concrete in cold weather.
 Retarders slow the hydration of concrete and are used in large or difficult pours where partial setting
before the pour is complete is undesirable.
 Air entraining agents add and entrain tiny air bubbles in the concrete, which reduces damage during
freeze-thaw cycles, increasing durability. However, entrained air entails a trade off with strength, as each
1% of air may decrease compressive strength 5%.
 Plasticizers increase the workability of plastic or "fresh" concrete, allowing it to be placed more easily,
with less consolidating effort. Plasticizers can be used to reduce the water content of a concrete while
maintaining workability and are sometimes called water-reducers due to this use. Such treatment improves
its strength and durability characteristics.
 Pigments can be used to change the color of concrete, for aesthetics.
 Corrosion inhibitors are used to minimize the corrosion of steel and steel bars in concrete.
 Bonding agents are used to create a bond between old and new concrete (typically a type of polymer)
with wide temperature tolerance and corrosion resistance.
 Pumping aids improve pump-ability, thicken the paste and reduce separation and bleeding.

Concrete Plant Facility

A Concrete Plant consists of large storage hoppers for various reactive ingredients like cement, storage for bulk
ingredients like aggregate and water, mechanisms for the addition of various additives and amendments,
machinery to accurately weigh, move, and mix some or all of those ingredients, and facilities to dispense the
mixed concrete, often to a concrete mixer truck.

Concrete Degradation

Concrete can be damaged by many processes, such as the expansion of corrosion products of the steel
reinforcement bars, freezing of trapped water, fire or radiant heat, aggregate expansion, sea water effects, bacterial
corrosion, leaching, erosion by fast-flowing water, physical damage and chemical damage.
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 Concrete Spalling caused by the corrosion of rebar

Spalling Concrete

Spalling concrete is concrete that has broken up, flaked, or become pitted. This is usually the result of a
combination of poor installation and environmental factors that stress the concrete, causing it to become damaged.

On a low level, it can be purely cosmetic in nature, but it can also result in structural damage, such as damage to
reinforcing bars positioned inside the concrete. For this reason, it is important to address spalling when it first
starts to appear.

The signs of spalling are easy to spot. The surface will become rough and flaky, and may pit. In some cases,
chunks of concrete break loose from the installation. The concrete can also start to crack, especially if large chunks
break off. It can be repaired by totally removing the damaged section of concrete and filling it in with cement.

The best time to address spalling is when concrete is first poured, by taking steps to prevent it from occurring in
the first place. The concrete should be mixed with the right amount of water, and ideally the mix kept as dry as
possible, because a high water content can weaken the material. It also needs time to cure properly and should be
handled carefully during curing. Sealing the concrete can also protect it from the elements. There are a number
of sealants available for concrete and they can also work with a decorative finish.

Causes of Cracks

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Cracks in concrete can appear in driveways, patios, sidewalks and even around the foundation of your home.
There are many things that can cause damage in these areas, including root growth and weather conditions.
Perhaps the most common cause of cracked concrete is standing water; when water does not drain properly, it
can work its way down between weakened sections and create a crack. Unless you solve the drainage problem,
the cracking is likely to reoccur.

How can I Repair Cracks in Concrete?

Repairing cracks in concrete is not as difficult as it might seem to someone who has never done it before. It
basically involves cleaning out the cracks, then using either a concrete patching compound or concrete caulk to
fill the space.

For larger cracks, a little sand can be added before the patching compound is used. After the cracks have been
filled, they should be allowed to dry completely. For concrete that is heavily damaged, or if the cracks appear in
the foundation of your home or another building, it probably is best to use a professional concrete repair service.

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Repair Quickly: Home ownership comes with both benefits and responsibilities, and one of those responsibilities
is to maintain the concrete or cement-paved areas around your home. It is best to perform the repairs as soon as
you see any cracks in concrete on your property, for a variety of reasons. Cracks are easier to repair while they
are still small. Safety is another reason to get started right away; homeowners are responsible for any injuries that
occur on their property, and large cracks could cause someone to trip and fall. Cracked concrete can also be
unattractive, and you likely will want to protect the looks and value of your home.

Excessive Damage: For serious or exceptionally large concrete crack repairs, you might need to call in a
professional. This is especially true if the cracks appear in the foundation of your home. A professional can
conduct a risk assessment survey to find out whether there is structural damage that needs to be addressed. He or
she may also be able to determine the cause of the cracking, and how future damage might be avoided.

A tied rebar beam cage which will be embedded inside cast concrete to increase its tensile strength

D. Reinforcement

Reinforcement is often included in concrete. Concrete is strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently
carries the compression load. However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in place can
crack, allowing the structure to fail. Reinforced concrete adds either steel reinforcing bars, steel fibers, glass fibers,
or plastic fibers to carry tensile loads.

Rebar (short for reinforcing bar), collectively known as reinforcing steel and reinforcement steel, is a steel bar
or mesh of steel wires used as a tension device in reinforced concrete and reinforced masonry structures to
strengthen and hold the concrete in tension. Rebar's surface is often patterned to form a better bond with the
concrete.

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Physical Characteristics of Rebar

 Steel has a thermal expansion coefficient nearly equal to that of modern concrete. If this were not so, it
would cause problems through additional longitudinal and perpendicular stresses at temperatures different
from the temperature of the setting. Although rebar has ribs that bind it mechanically to the concrete, it
can still be pulled out of the concrete under high stresses, an occurrence that often accompanies a larger-
scale collapse of the structure. To prevent such a failure, rebar is either deeply embedded into adjacent
structural members (40–60 times the diameter), or bent and hooked at the ends to lock it around the
concrete and other rebar. This first approach increases the friction locking the bar into place, while the
second makes use of the high compressive strength of concrete.

Corroded concrete and rebar at the bridge

 Common Rebar is made of unfinished tempered steel, making it susceptible to rusting. Normally the
concrete cover is able to provide a pH value higher than 12 avoiding the corrosion reaction. Too little
concrete cover can compromise this guard through carbonation from the surface, and salt penetration. Too
much concrete cover can cause bigger crack widths which also compromises the local guard. As rust takes
up greater volume than the steel from which it was formed, it causes severe internal pressure on the
surrounding concrete, leading to cracking, spalling, and ultimately, structural failure. This is a particular
problem where the concrete is exposed to salt water, as in bridges where salt is applied to roadways in
winter, or in marine applications. Uncoated, corrosion-resistant low carbon/chromium (micro-composite),
epoxy-coated, galvanized or stainless steel rebars may be employed in these situations at greater initial
expense, but significantly lower expense over the service life of the project.

~ End ~