ANIMAL

REPRODUCTION
AND
DEVELOPMENT
MODES OF REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
A S E X UA L V S . S E X UA L R E P R O D U C T I O N I N A N I M A L S

 Sexual reproduction is
the creation of an
offspring by fusion of a
male gamete (sperm)
and female gamete
(egg) to form a zygote.
 Asexual reproduction is
creation of offspring
without the fusion of
egg and sperm . One
parent clones offspring.
A S E X UA L R E P R O D U C T I O N I N A N I M A L S

▪ Budding- occurs
when individuals
arise throughout
the outgrowths
from a parent. This
can create a colony
of individuals
attached to a
parent, such as in
corals.
A S E X UA L R E P R O D U C T I O N I N A N I M A L S

▪ Fission- is the
separation/division of
an organism to form
individuals of
approximately same
size. This is usually
observed in animal-
like protists such as
Amoeba
A S E X UA L R E P R O D U C T I O N I N A N I M A L S

▪ Fragmentation and
Regeneration-
fragmentation is when an
animal’s body breaks into
different parts, which later
regenerate to form
several individuals.
Sponges, annelids,
cnidarians and tunicates
are examples of this
mode of reproduction.
A S E X UA L R E P R O D U C T I O N I N A N I M A L S

▪ Parthenogenesis- is
like apomixes in
plants, where the egg
cell develops without
fertilization. This is
exhibited by bees,
wasps, lizards, sharks.
S E X U A L R E P R O D U C T I O N : A DVA N TAG E S

Sexual reproduction results in genetic recombination,

which provides potential advantages:
 An increase in variation in offspring, providing an
increase in the reproductive success of parents in
changing environments
 An increase in the rate of adaptation
 A shuffling of genes and the elimination of harmful genes
from a population.
R E P R O D U C T I V E C YC L E S

 Ovulation is the release of mature eggs at the midpoint of a female cycle.

 Most animals exhibit reproductive cycles related to changing seasons.
 Reproductive cycles are controlled by hormones and environmental cues.
 Animals may reproduce asexually or sexually, or they may alternate these methods.
 Sexual reproduction is a special problem for organisms that seldom encounter a
mate.
 One solution is hermaphroditism = each individual has BOTH male and female
reproductive systems.
 Some hermaphrodites can self-fertilize.
 Individuals of some species undergo sex reversals.
 Some species exhibit male to female reversal (for example, certain oysters), while
others exhibit female to male reversal (for example, a coral reef fish).
F E R T I L I Z AT I O N A N D F U S I O N O F G A M E T E S

The mechanisms of fertilization, the union of egg and sperm, play an important part in
sexual reproduction.
 In external fertilization, eggs shed by the female are fertilized by sperm in the external
environment. Examples are fishes, sea urchins, etc.
 In internal fertilization, sperm are deposited in or near the female reproductive tract,
and fertilization occurs within the tract.
Types of Union of Gametes
 Isogamy- fusion of similar gametes. For example, Chlamydomonas producing
gametes or Spirogyra undergoing conjugation
 Heterogamy- fusion of dissimilar gametes, like animal sperm and egg
HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEMS
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
R E P R O D U C T I V E C YC L E S O F F E M A L E S

In females, the secretion of hormones and the reproductive events

they regulate are cyclic.
 Prior to ovulation, the endometrium = uterine lining, thickens
with blood vessels in preparation for embryo implantation.
 If an embryo does not implant in the endometrium, the
endometrium is shed in a process called menstruation.
Hormones closely link the two cycles of female reproduction:
 Changes in the uterus / uterine lining with blood vessels define
the menstrual cycle (also called the uterine cycle).
 Changes in the ovaries / follicle / egg chamber define the
ovarian cycle.
R E P R O D U C T I V E C YC L E S O F F E M A L E S
GA M E T O G E N E S I S I N H U M A N S

 Gametogenesis = the production of gametes by meiosis. This

differs in females and males
 Sperm are small and motile and are produced throughout the
life of a sexually mature male.
 Spermatogenesis is production of mature sperm.
 Eggs contain stored nutrients and are much larger.
 Oogenesis is development of mature oocytes (eggs) and can
take many years .
OOGENESIS
S P E R M AT O G E N E S I S

 FSH promotes the activity of Sertoli cells, which nourish developing

sperm and are located within the seminiferous tubules.
 LH regulates Leydig cells, which secrete testosterone and other androgen
hormones, which in turn promote spermatogenesis.
 Testosterone regulates the production of GnRH, FSH, and LH through
negative feedback mechanisms.
 Sertoli cells secrete the hormone inhibin, which reduces FSH secretion
from the anterior pituitary.
S P E R M AT O G E N E S I S
C O N T R AC E P T I O N S

Birth control, also known as contraception, anticonception, and fertility control, is the use
of methods or devices to prevent unintended pregnancy.
Methods:
 Ovulation-suppressing methods- Oral contraceptives
 Barrier methods
Physical (Condom, Diaphragm, Cervical cap)
Chemical- Spermicidal jelly and foam
 Surgical methods- Vasectomy and Tubal ligation
 Implantation-suppressing methods- IUD(intrauterine device) and Morning-after pill
 Others: Abstinence
ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT
F E R T I L I Z AT I O N

 Fertilization is the formation of a diploid zygote from a haploid egg

and sperm
 Molecules and events at the egg surface play a crucial role in each
step of fertilization
Sperm penetrate the protective layer around the egg
Receptors on the egg surface bind to molecules on the sperm
surface
Changes at the egg surface prevent polyspermy, the entry of
multiple sperm nuclei into the egg
C L E AVAG E

 Fertilization is followed by cleavage, a

period of rapid cell division without growth
 Cleavage partitions the cytoplasm of one
large cell into many smaller cells called
blastomeres
 The blastula is a ball of cells with a fluid-
filled cavity called a blastocoel
MORPHOGENESIS

 After cleavage, the rate of cell division slows and the

normal cell cycle is restored
 Morphogenesis, the process by which cells occupy their
appropriate locations, involves
Gastrulation, the movement of cells from the blastula
surface to the interior of the embryo
Organogenesis, the formation of organs
G A S T R U L AT I O N

 Gastrulation rearranges the cells of a blastula into a three-layered

embryo, called a gastrula
 The three layers produced by gastrulation are called embryonic
germ layers
The ectoderm forms the outer layer
The endoderm lines the digestive tract
The mesoderm partly fills the space between the endoderm and
ectoderm
 Each germ layer contributes to specific structures in the adult animal
G A S T R U L AT I O N
G E R M L AY E R D E R I VAT I V E S
G E R M L AY E R D E R I VAT I V E S
O R GA N O G E N E S I S
 During organogenesis, various
regions of the germ layers
develop into rudimentary
organs

 Early in vertebrate
organogenesis, the notochord
forms from mesoderm, and the
neural plate forms from
ectoderm

 The neural plate soon curves

inward, forming the neural tube

 The neural tube will become

the central nervous system
(brain and spinal cord)
O R GA N O G E N E S I S
D E T E R M I N AT I O N A N D D I F F E R E N T I AT I O N

 Determination is the term

used to describe the process
by which a cell or group of
cells becomes committed to
a particular fate
 Differentiation refers to the
resulting specialization in
structure and function
O R G A N F O R M AT I O N