MODULE 7

DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE

ARGUMENTS
The body of propositions, which is made up of premises and conclusion is
what we call an argument. The process of supporting conclusions with premises
or inferring the conclusion from a set of premises is what we call reasoning or
argumentation. Reasoning may be deductive or inductive depending on
whether it proceeds from the particular to the universal or vice versa.

Deductive reasoning entails proceeding from universal data to a particular

and individual conclusion. Inductive reasoning involves proceeding from
individual or particular data to a general or universal conclusion.

Likewise, when we say deductive reasoning, the claim or conclusion is

conclusively or absolutely supported by the premises. This is opposed to inductive
reasoning wherein the support may only be a matter of probability.

DEDUCTIVE REASONING
“All birds are animals. The parrot is a bird. Therefore, the parrot is an animal”.

An argument is deductive if the premises claim to give conclusive grounds

for the truth of the conclusion, or if the premises claim to support the conclusion
with logical necessity, that is, we cannot deny it without committing a logical
contradiction. In the example above, accept the first statement (premise) and
you don’t have any choice but to accept the conclusion

Types of Deductive Arguments

1. Necessary Analytic Inferences – arguments that follow from the truths of
the meanings of words used.
Example: Leandro is Angelo’s father. Therefore, Angelo must be Leandro’s
son.

2. Mathematical Inferences – arguments that follow from the truths of

mathematics
Example: Since there are more people in the world that there are hair
strands on your head, the world population is greater than the hair strands on your
head.
 3. Logical Inferences – arguments that follow from the truths of logic.
Example: If you work hard, then you will succeed, and if you succeed, then
you will be happy; therefore, if you work hard, you will be happy.

INDUCTIVE REASONING
“Pin sinks in water. Nail sinks in water. Door knob sinks in water. Therefore, all
materials made of metal sink in water.”

An argument is inductive if it makes the milder claim that its premises

support but does not absolutely guarantee its conclusion. Validity and invalidity
apply only to deductive arguments. Inductive arguments are evaluated to be
either high (or strong) or low (or weak). They can range in probability from very
low to very high but always less than 100%. Unlike deductive arguments in which
nothing can be added to make the inference more certain, premises can be
added to inductive arguments to make them more probable.

Types of Inductive Arguments

1. Extrapolations – to infer unknown information from known information.
Example: If there is water, there is life. NASA found water in the polar region
of Mars. There is life in planet Mars.

2. Predictions – to infer that the future will be like the past

Example: She had a relationship with Rafael and it didn’t work out. She had
a relationship with Romeo and it also ended after a few months. Now, I heard
she’s dating a guy named Ramon. It also starts with the letter “R”. Give it two or
three months and they’ll probably call it quits.

3. Part to Whole – to infer that since some things are this way, that all must
be this way.
Example: Juana’s shoes are gifts from his suitor abroad, so are her clothes,
ribbon, and bag. I’m sure, Juana’s new pants is also from his suitor abroad.

4. Analogies – to infer that the truth of one is shared by another that is similar,
or in some ways, like itself.
Example: The universe is a complex system like a watch. We wouldn't think
that a watch can come about by accident. Something so complicated must
have been created by someone. The universe is a lot more complicated, so it
must have been created by a being who is a lot more intelligent.