UNIT-2

TRANSDUCER [FORCE,
PRESSURE SENSORS]
Load cell(Force
Measurement)
 A load cell is a transducer that is used to
create an electrical signal whose
magnitude is directly proportional to the
force being measured.
 Common types are:
 Piezoelectric Load Cell
 Hydraulic Load Cell
 Pneumatic load cell
 Resistive Load Cells
 Strain gauge load cell
 Piezoelectric Load Cell

 A piezoelectric load cell converts an

applied force into an electric charge by a
piezoelectric ceramic or crystal.
 Pi e z o e l e c t r i c l o a d C e l l s c o n s i s t o f
piezoelectric material.
 Working

 When a force is applied to piezoelectric

materials they Create Electric Voltage
proportional to force
Advantages and Limitations

Advantages
 No need of external force.

 Easy to handle and use as it has small

dimensions.
 High frequency response it means the
parameters change very rapidly.
Limitations:
 It is not suitable for measurement in static
condition.
 It is affected by temperatures.
 Output is low so some external circuit is
attached to it.
 It is very difficult to give desired shape to this
material and also desired strength
 Hydraulic Load Cell
Construction:
 This particular type of
load cell uses
conventional piston
a n d c y l i n d e r
arrangement.
 The piston is placed
in a thin elastic
diaphragm.
 The piston doesn't
actually come in
contact with the load
cell.
Working principle

 When the load is applied on the piston,

the movement of the piston and the
diaphragm results in an increase of oil
pressure which in turn produces a change
in the pressure on a Bourdon tube
connected with the load cells.
 The device has a capacity of up to 5MN
and it is self-regenerating, requiring no
external power other than the energy its
input creates.
 It is an active sensor device (not a
transducer as no electrical output signal is
generated).
 However, a pressure transducer can be
connected to the pressure output, hence
producing electrical signals.
Hydraulic Load Cell:
Limitations
 This technology is more expensive than
other types of load cells.
 It is a more costly technology and thus
cannot effectively compete on a cost of
purchase basis
 Pneumatic load cell

 The Load cell is designed to automatically regulate

the balancing pressure.
 Air pressure is applied to one end of the diaphragm
and it escapes through the nozzle placed at the
bottom of the load cell
 The main parts of a pneumatic
load cell

 An Elastic Diaphragm: This is made of a flexible

material or can also be a corrugated diaphragm.
 A Loading Platform: This is where the force is applied
or weight to be quantified is placed.
 It is usually a steel piston with the diaphragm attached to its
base.
 Air Supply Regulator: This is located at the bottom of
the device or at its side below the diaphragm. It is
basically an opening that is regulated by a valve.
 An Outlet Nozzle: This is also an opening but not
directly regulated by any valve.
 The main parts of a pneumatic
load cell
 T h e F l a p p e r o r B l e e d Va l v e : T h i s i s
attached to the body of the diaphragm.
 Its upward/downward movement opens/closes
the outlet nozzle.
 A Pressure Gauge or Manometer: This
indicates the pressure as a measure of the
weight or applied force.
 The pressure gauge is made from materials
such as glass, plastics and basic metals like
aluminum.
 Also, alloy materials like brass and steel are
used with polycarbonate and polypropylene.
 working
 The pneumatic load cell is a force-balance device
whose operation relies on the pressure exerted by
the force or weight exerted on a volume of air in a
confined space.
 The force is applied to the loading platform to
which a diaphragm and a flapper is attached.
 This applied load deflects the diaphragm and as a
result, causes the flapper to move downwards and
shut off the outlet nozzle.

While this is happening, a back pressure is also

acting on the diaphragm thereby producing a
counteractive upward force.
 The resultant of the upward and downward force
working
 The force is applied to one side of a
d i a p h r a g m o f f l ex i b l e m a t e r i a l a n d
balanced by pneumatic pressure on the
other side.
 The counter-acting pressure is
proportional to force and is displayed on
a pressure dial.
Advantages and Limitations

Advantages:
 The advantages of this type is that they
are explosion proof.
 They are not sensitive to temperature
variations.
 They contain no fluids like other type
that might contaminate the process if
diaphragm destroyed.
Limitations:
 They are relatively slow speed of
response.
 They need for clean, dry, regulated air
Resistive Load Cells

 The strain gauge measures the

deformation (strain) as a change in
electrical resistance, which is a measure
of the strain and hence the applied
forces
Strain Gauge Load cell.

 It is the most common type of load cell

used widely in various industries for a
large variety of load cell applications.
Pressure Measurement

Pressure is an expression of the force

required to stop a fluid from
expanding, and is usually stated in
terms of force per unit area.
 A pressure sensor is a device for
p re s s u re m e a s u re m e n t o f g a s e s o r
liquids.
 A pressure sensor usually acts as a

transducer; it generates a signal as a

function of the pressure imposed.
Pressure measurement
Electric Pressure
Transducers
Elastic Pressure Transducers
Bourdon Tube Pressure
Gauge
Principle
 The bourdon tube works on a simple
principle that a bent tube will change its
shape .
 As pressure is applied internally, the tube
straightens and returns to its original form
when the pressure is released .
 The tip of the tube moves with the internal
pressure change and is easily converted with
a pointer onto a scale.
Bourdon Tube Pressure
Gauge
Bourdon Tube Pressure
Gauge
Bourdon Tube Pressure
Gauge
 Spiral type Bourdon tube

 The spiral Bourdon tube makes a few windings in one

plane around the fixed shaft of the pointer.
 When th e tu b e i s b ei n g u n c o i l ed b y th e p ro c es s
pressure, the free end will have a larger displacement
compared to the C-shaped tube. The more windings,
the larger the displacement will be.
 For low pressure ranges, the spiral is made of a flat oval
tube, while round tube is being used for the high
pressure ranges.
 The same low pressures can be measured with the
spiral Bourdon tube as with the C-shaped Bourdon tube
but the cost for a spiral pressure gauge is higher.
Spiral type Bourdon tube
 Helical type Bourdon tube

 The helical Bourdon tube has several turns winded into

a helix.
 The number of coils can vary from two or three to as
many as twenty.
 They can be equipped with or without a transmission
mechanism.
 With 2 to 3 windings, the measuring range will rather be
small and a transmission mechanism will be necessary
to amplify the movement of the free end.
 Having 16 to 20 windings, a larger measuring range
becomes possible without the need for a transmission
mechanism because the movement of the free end is
large enough on itself.
Helical type Bourdon tube
Advantages &
Disadvantages
ADVANTAGES
 Inexpensive
 Wide operating range

 Fast response

 Good sensitivity

 Direct pressure measurements

DISADVANTAGES
 Sensitive to temperature variations

 Limited life when subjected to shock and

vibrations
Diaphragm

 The diaphragm is a flexible disc, which

can be either flat or with concentric
corrugations and is made from sheet
metal with high tolerance dimensions.
 The diaphragm can be used as a means
of isolating the process fluids, or for high
pressure applications.
 It is also useful in providing pressure
measurement with electrical transducers
(LVDT).
 It is used as primary pressure
transducers in many dynamic pressure
 Working
 When a force acts against a thin stretched
diaphragm, it causes a deflection of the
diaphragm with its centre deflecting the
most.
 Diaphragm Gauge

 Since the elastic limit has to be maintained, the

deflection of the diaphragm must be kept in a
restricted manner.
 This can be done by cascading many diaphragm
capsules as shown in the figure below.
 A main capsule is designed by joining two
diaphragms at the periphery.
 A pressure inlet line is provided at the central
position. When the pressure enters the capsule, the
deflection will be the sum of deflections of all the
individual capsules.
 As shown in figure (3), corrugated diaphragms are
also used instead of the conventional ones.
Diaphrag
m
Diaphragm
 Non-metallic or slack diaphragms are
used for measuring very small pressures.
 The commonly used materials for
making the diaphragm are polythene,
neoprene, animal membrane, silk, and
synthetic materials.
 Due to their non-elastic characteristics,
the device will have to be opposed with
external springs for calibration and
precise operation.

Diaphragm
Corrugated designs help in providing a
linear deflection and also increase the
member strength.

The total amount of deflection for a given

p re s s u re d i f f e re n t i a l i s k n o w n b y t h e
following factors:
 Number and depth of corrugation

 Number of capsules

 Capsule diameter

 Shell thickness

 Material characteristics
Advantages of Diaphragm

 Good for low pressure

 Inexpensive
 Wide range
 Reliable and proven
 Used to measure gauge, atmospheric
and differential pressure
Bellows
 Bellows

 A bellows gauge
contains an elastic
element that is a
convoluted unit that
e x p a n d s a n d
contracts axially
with change in
pressure.

 The pressure to be
measured can be
applied to the outside
or inside of the
Bellows
Types
 Resistance type pressure Transducers
 Pressure Voltage type
 Capacitive Type
 Carbon pile type
 Piezoelectric type
 Photoelectric Type
 Electromagnetic Type
Resistance Type Pressure
Transducers
Resistance type devices used in pressure
transducers are
 Strain Gauge

 Moving Coil
 Strain Gauge Pressure
Transducers
 When a strain gauge, is used to measure the
deflection of an elastic diaphragm or Bourdon
tube, it becomes a component in a pressure
transducer.
 The strain gauge is used to measure the
displacement of an elastic diaphragm due to
a difference in pressure across the
diaphragm.
 These devices can detect gauge pressure if
the low pressure port is left open to the
atmosphere
 or differential pressure if connected to two
 Working
 Pressure transducers and pressure sensors
often consist of a spring element on which
multiple strain gauges are installed.
 Hence, they work similarly to force transducers.
 A diaphragm is frequently used as the
pressure-sensitive measuring body in the lower
pressure range, while the spring element often
consists of a single, tubular piece of steel in the
high-pressure range.
 Process pressure applies a mechanical load to
the spring element, which ex p er i en c es a
deformation before returning to its original
state.
Potentiometer Pressure
Transducers
Potentiometer Pressure
Transducers
Capacitive Pressure
Transducer
Capacitive Pressure
Transducer
Capacitive Pressure
Transducer
Inductive type Pressure
Transducers
Inductive Pressure
Transducer
Piezoelectric Pressure
Transducer
High pressure Measurement
 Bridgeman Gauge
 When a wire is subjected to pressure from
all sides its electrical resistance changes
This principle can be utilized to obtain a
primary type resistive pressure sensor and
is called as a Bridgeman pressure sensor.
 The distortion produced in the crystal lattice
due to the external pressure causes the change
in resistance.
 The gauge must be used at a constant
temperature, and has a range from 0 to 1000
MPa, but usable only at high pressure, as, at low
values of pressure the change in resistance
 It has a bone ring shape with an insulated
manganin wire having a pressure co-efficient
of resistance of 23×10 -7 cm 2 /kg so that the
total resistance of the wire is 100 ohm.
 The winding is generally bifilar for avoiding
inductive effect.
 C a r b o n c a n a l s o b e u s e d f o r p re s s u re
measurement in the form of granules or discs.
 With pressure, its resistance also changes,
but non-linearly and is not suitable for a
linear scale measurement.
 The resistance pressure gauge
diagram is shown below.
Low Pressure Measurement
 Direct Methods: Here the
displacement deflection caused by
the pressure is measured and is
correlated to the pressure. The
following devices are included in this
category:
 Spiral Bourdon tubes
 Flat and Corrugated diaphragms
 Capsules
 Manometer
 Indirect or inferential methods: In these
methods, pressure is determined
through the measurement of certain
other pressure controlled properties,
including volume and thermal
conductivity. Devices included in this
category are:
 Mcleod Gauge
 Thermal conductivity gauges
 Ionization gauges
 Radioactive vacuum meters
 Pirani Gauge Working
principle
 The Pirani gauge consists of a metal
filament (usually platinum ) suspended
in a tube which is connected to the
system whose vacuum is to be
measured.

 The filament is connected to an electrical

circuit from which, after calibration, a
pressure reading may be taken.
working
 A conducting wire (platinum filament)
gets heated when electric current flows
through it.
 This wire suspended in a gas will lose
heat to the gas as its molecules collide
with the wire and remove heat.
 As the gas pressure is reduced the
number of molecules present will fall
proportionately, the conductivity of the
surrounding media will fall and the wire
will lose heat more slowly.
Pirani Gauge
Pirani Gauge

 Measuring the heat loss is an indirect

indication of pressure.
 The electrical resistance of the wire
v a r i e s w i t h i t s t e m p e r a t u re , s o t h e
measurement of resistance also
indicates the temperature of wire.
 Now the change in resistance of the
filament is determined using the bridge.
 This change in resistance of the pirani
gauge filament becomes a measure of
the applied pressure when calibrated
Pirani Gauge

 The gauge may be used for pressures

between 0.5 Torr to 10 − 3 Torr.
 T h e t h e rm a l c o n d u c t i v i t y a n d h e a t
capacity of the gas may affect the
readout from the meter, and therefore
the apparatus may need calibrating
before accurate readings are obtainable.
 For lower pressure measurement other
instruments are used.
There are three possible schemes that can
be done.[
 Keep the bridge voltage constant and

measure the change in resistance as a

function of pressure
 Keep the current constant and measure

the change in resistance as a function of

pressure
 Keep the temperature of the sensor wire
constant and measure the voltage as a
function of pressure
Advantages
Advantages:
 These gauges are rugged , inexpensive

and usually more accurate than

thermocouple gauge.
 Pressure reading range is wider

 Fast response to change in pressure

 Possibility of process control and remote

reading
Disadvantages
 Calibration is non linear and varies from
one gas to another
 Require calibration against some
pressure standards
 Poor transient response
 Operation requires electrical power
McLeod Gauge

 It is employed as an absolute standard of

v a c u u m m e a s u re m e n t f o r p re s s u re s
ranging from 10 to 10−4 Torr.
 A McLeod gauge, which is also known as a
compression gauge, is used for vacuum
measurement by compressing the low-
pressure gas whose pressure is to be
measured.
 The trapped gas gets compressed in a
capillary tube. Vacuum is measured by
measuring the height of a column of
mercury.
McLeod Gauge
McLeod Gauge

 McLeod gauge works on Boyle’s law,

which states that by compressing a
known volume of the low pressure
gas to a hi gher pressure, i ni t i a l
pressure can be calculated by
measuring the resulting volume and
pressure.”
 The followin g fu n damen tal relation
represents Boyle’s law:
McLeod Gauge
 Let V1 be the volume of the bulb in capillary
A above the level O,
 P1 the unknown pressure of the gas in the
system connected to B and C,
 P2 the pressure of the gas in the limb after
compression, and
 V2 the volume of the gas in the sealed limb
after compression. Then,

 where P1 and P2 are measured in units of

mmHg
McLeod Gauge

 If the cross sectional area of the capillary

tube is ‘a’ and the difference in levels of
the two columns in limbs A and B is h,
then V2 = ah, where h is the difference
between pressures P1 and P2, that is,
h = P2 − P1”
 We thus have,
McLeod Gauge

 Hence,

(ah<<V
1)
 Advantages&
Disadvantages
Advantages of the McLeod Gauge:
It is independent of the gas composition.
 It serves as a reference standard to calibrate other low
pressure gauges.
 A linear relationship exists between the applied pressure

and h
 There is no need to apply corrections to the McLeod

Gauge readings.
Limitations of McLeod Gauge:
 The gas whose pressure is to be measured should obey
the Boyle’s law
 Moisture traps must be provided to avoid any
Ionization Gauge – Hot
Cathode Type

 Ionization Gauge is a device that is used

to measure vacuum.
 The ionization gauge is similar to an
ordinary electron tube.
 It consists of an envelope which is
evacuated by pressure to be measured
and contain a heated filament, a
positively based grid and negative based
plate.
 Ionization Gauge

The construction of a hot cathode type ionization

gauge consists of a basic vacuum triode.
 The grid draws electrons from heated
filament and collision between them and
gas causes ionization of the molecules.
 As the plate is –ive charged, the +ive
charged ions are attracted towards the
plate of the tube, causing current I1 flow
in the external circuit;
 electrons are collected by the grid and
current i2 is produced in the grid circuit.
 The rate of ions production is
proportional to the number of
electrons available to ionize the gas
and the amount of gas present.
 Thus the ratio of +ve ion i.e anode current I1
to electrons i.e grid current I2 is a measure
of gas pressure.
1 I1
p =
s I2
 Where S is sensitivity of the gauge
Advantages
 Fast response to change in pressure
 Possibility to process control and remote
indication
 Constant sensitivity for a given gas over
a wide range of pressure
 Wide pressure range
Disadvantages
 Some gases get decomposed by hot
filament
 Contamination of the measured gas by
gases forced out of the hot filament.
 High cost
 Complex electric circuitry
FLOW SENSORS

 Flow is defined as the quantity of fluid

(gas, liquid, vapour) that passes a point
per unit time
 It can be presented by a simple
equation:
Flow (Q) = quantity/time
 It is the rate of change of a quantity. It
is either volumetric or mass flow rate.
Importance of Fluid
Measurement

Measuring flow is one of the most

important aspects of process control

 The fluid flowing through pipes have

different properties, so different flow
measuring devices are used
 The maintenance of definite rates of flow
is important for maximum efficiency and
production
Differential Pressure
Flow Meters
 It works on the principle of partially
obstructing the flow in a pipe. Th is
creates a difference in the static
pressure between the upstream and
downstream side of the device.
 The difference between static pressure
(referred to as differential pressure) is
measured and used to determine the
flow rate.
Differential flow meters

Some of the most common types of

differential flow meters are:
 orifice flow meter
 venturi flow meter
 nozzle flow meter
 pitot tube flow meter
 Venturi tube
Venturi tube consists of a
section of pipe with a conical
entrance, a short straight
throat, and a conical outlet.

The velocity increases and

t h e p re s s u re d ro p s a t t h e
throat.

The differential pressure is

measured between the inlet
(upstream of the conical
entrance) and the throat.
Venturi meter

 Venturi meter is a device used to measure

the speed and flow rate of fluid through a
pipe.

 The venturi meter is connected to a pipe at two

points as shown in the fig.
 Construction of
Venturimeter:
 Venturimeter consist of three main parts called,
-Convergent nozzle.
-Throat.
-Divergent nozzle.
Convergent nozzle:
A convergent nozzle is present at the starting of
venturimeter which is attached to the throat first end.
the convergent nozzle consist of a decreasing cross-
sectional area.
Throat:
Throat is present in the middle of venturimeter. and this
is attached to the end of the convergent nozzle. throttle
consist of an equal diameter throughout the length.
Divergent nozzle:
Divergent nozzle is attached to the end of the throat.
divergent nozzle consist of increasing cross-sectional
According to Bernoulli’s
theorem.....

 In an incompressible, ideal fluid when the

flow is steady and continuous, the sum of
pressure energy, kinetic energy and
potential energy will be constant along a
stream line.

Assumptions
 Assumptions made for deriving the
expression of discharge through the orifice
meter is as mentioned here.
1. Fluid is ideal, i.e. inviscid and incompressible.
2. Fluid flow is steady and continuous
3. Fluid flow is irrotational
Bernoulli’s principle can be derived from the principle of
conservation of energy.
This states that, in a steady flow, the sum of all forms of
energy in a fluid along a streamline is the same at all
points on that streamline.

Where: -p is the pressure

-ρ is the density
-V is the velocity
-h is the elevation
-g is the gravitational acceleration
-p is the pressure head
-1/2ρV2 is the velocity head
-ρgh is the gravitational head
Working
Advantages
 Moderately low pressure loss
 No moving parts
 Less susceptible to damage/wear
 Suitable for wet gas flow

Disadvantages
 Large physical size
 Greater cost to manufacture
Orifice plates
Orifice plates are the most common
type of meter for measuring the
discharge of fluid and are basically a
machined metal plate with a hole, as
shown below. The plate has a sharp
upstream edge and usually a
bevelled edge downstream of the
flow.

Downstream face Upstream face

 Orifice meter
 A concentric orifice plate is the simplest and least
costly of the differential pressure devices.
 The orifice plate constricts the flow of a fluid and
produces a differential pressure across the plate (see
Figure )
 This results in a high pressure upstream and a low
pressure downstream that is proportional to the
square of the flow velocity.
 An orifice plate usually produces a greater
overall pressure loss than other flow
elements.
 One advantage of this device is that cost
does not increase significantly with pipe
size
Derivation of rate of flow through
Orifice meter

 Let us consider one orifice meter fitted in a

horizontal pipe as displayed here in following
figure.
 Let us say that water is flowing through the
horizontal pipe.
Derivation
 d1 = Diameter at section 1 (Inlet section)
 P1 = Pressure at section 1 (Inlet section)
 v1 = Velocity of fluid at section 1 (Inlet
section)
 A1 = Area of pipe at section 1 (Inlet section)
 d2 = Diameter at section 2
 P2 = Pressure at section 2
 v2 = Velocity of fluid at section 2
 A2 = Area at section 2
 Р = Fluid density
 g= acceleration due to gravity
 z= elevation head of fluid
 We will have following equation after
applying Bernoulli’s equation at section 1
and section 2.
 Let A0 is the area of the orifice
 Co-efficient of contraction, CC = A2/A0
 Let us recall the continuity equation and we will
have following equation
 Thus we will use the value of CC in above
equation of discharge Q and we will have
following result for rate of flow or discharge
through orifice meter.

 Co-efficient of discharge of the orifice meter

will be quite small as compared to the co-
efficient of discharge of the venturimeter.
 Advantages &
Disadvantages
Advantages
 Orifice plate is very simplest instrument available which

is also very easy to install and remove

 Have high pressure recover efficiency of 65 percent

 Have the ability of measure flow rate over a wide range

 Cost effective

Disadvantages
 It only support those fluid that are homogeneous is

nature
 Accuracy of orifice plate depends on fluid density,

viscosity and pressure

 Working limited to horizontal applications
Pitot Tube

 The pitot tube is used to measure the

velocity of flow of air or any fluid.
 Pitot Tube

 Let us consider a horizontal pipe through which air flows.

 A manometer filled with mercury of density is
connected to the pipe as shown in fig.
 The Bernoulli's theorem for the present problem
can be written as,

 The pressure due to elevation is constant in the

horizontal flow of fluid.
Pitot Tube

 The pitot tube is one of the simplest flow

sensors, it is used in a wide range of flow
measurement applications such as air
speed in racing cars and Air Force fighter
jets.
 In industrial applications, pitot tubes are
used to measure air flow in pipes, ducts,
and stacks, and liquid flow in pipes,
weirs, and open channels.
Advantages & Disadvantages

 Accuracy and rangeability are relatively

low.
 These are simple, reliable, inexpensive,
and suited for a variety of environmental
conditions, including extremely high
t e m p e r a t u re s a n d a w i d e r a n g e o f
pressures.
 Flow Nozzles

Flow nozzles have a curved entry and a

cylindrical throat, but no divergent outlet
section.
Therefore, the discharge coefficient is similar
to Venturi tube, but the overall pressure loss is
similar to that of orifice plate.
 Flow Nozzle

 Flow nozzles are actually a variation on the Venturi tube,

with the nozzle opening being an elliptical restriction in
the flow.
 Pressure taps are located approximately 1/2 pipe
diameter downstream and 1 pipe diameter upstream.
 The flow nozzle is a high-velocity flow
meter used where turbulence is high as in
steam flow applications.
 The pressure drop of a flow nozzle is
between that of a Venturi tube and the
orifice plate (30 to 95 percent).
Applications of Flow Nozzle

 It is used to measure flow rates of the

liquid discharged into the atmosphere.
 It is usually used in situation where
suspended solids have the property of
settling.
 Is widely used for high pressure and
temperature steam flows.
Advantages of flow Nozzle

 Installation is easy and is cheaper when

compared to venturi meter
 It is very compact
 Has high coefficient of discharge.
Limitations

 Pressure recovery is low

 Maintenance is high
 Installation is difficult when compared to
orifice flow meter.
 Hot Wire Anemometer

 The Hot Wire Anemometer is a device used for

measuring the velocity and direction of the fluid.
 This can be done by measuring the heat loss of the
wire which is placed in the fluid stream.
 The wire is heated by electrical current.
 The hot wire when placed in the stream of the
fluid, the heat is transferred from wire to fluid,
and hence the temperature of wire reduces.
 The resistance of wire measures the flow rate of
the fluid.
 The hot wire anemometer is used as a research tool in
fluid mechanics. It works on the principle of
transfer of heat from high temperature to low
Construction of Hot Wire
Anemometer

The hot wire anemometer consists two

main parts.
 Conducting wire
 Wheat stone bridge.
 The conducting wire is housed inside the
ceramic body.
 T h e w i re s a re t a k i n g o u t f ro m t h e
ceramic body and connecting to the
Wheatstone bridge.
 The wheat stone bridge measures the
variation of resistance.
Hot Wire Anemometer
Working
 Hot Wire Anemometer
Working

 The standard resistor is connected in series with the

heating wire.
 T h e c u rren t a c ro s s t h e w i re i s d e t e rm i n e d b y
knowing the voltage drop across the resistor.
 And the value of voltage drop is determined by the
potentiometer. The equation determines the heat
loss from the heated wire

Where, v – velocity of heat flow,

ρ – the density of fluid,
 The a and b are the constants.
 Their value depends on the dimension and the
Disadvantages

 It requires nonporous pipe material (cast

iron, cement and fiberglass should be
avoided)
 It requires periodic re-calibration
 An ultrasonic flow meter is a meter that
measures the flow by detecting the action
of fluid flow on an ultrasonic beam (or
ultrasonic pulse).
Features are:
 Easy to carry;

 Low maintenance;

 Can only be used to measure cleaning

liquids;
 Not subject to pipe diameter restrictions;

 No flow obstruction measurement, no

additional pressure loss.
 Working
 Ultrasonic flow meter works on the Transit Time
or Time of Flight principle.
 The Flow meter unit utilizes two transducers
that functions as both Ultrasonic transmitter
and receiver.
 The transducers are either clamped on or
inserted to the outside surface of the closed
pipes.
 The transit time flow meter measures the time
it takes for an ultrasonic signal transmitted
from one transducer to cross the pipe and be
received by second transducer.
 The flow is then measured by comparing the
upstream and downstream time of Ultrasonic
signal.
 For measuring the Flow of the medium, two
ultrasonic pulses are sent through the
medium, one in the flow direction and other
in the opposite direction.
 The transit time of the two pulses are then
measured.
 The transit time difference Δt between
these two pulses gives the average flow
velocity on the propagation path of the
Ultrasonic signals.
 This can be used to obtain the average flow
velocity on the cross section of the pipe,
Working
Advantages:

 Ultrasonic meters are made up of no moving

parts.
 They experience no pressure loss.
 They endow with maintenance-free operation.
It is a key advantage as compared to
conventional mechanical meters such as
positive displacement meters, turbines etc.
 Furthermore, Ultrasonic flow meters are
consistently more accurate and reliable than a
lot of other metering systems.
 With the emergence of 3-beam ultrasonic, all
other flow meters like mass, vortex, positive
displacement and turbine flow meters which
are used to measure non-conductive fluids,
Disadvantages:

 Still problematic for liquid and gas

measurements
 Sound beam must traverse a representative
cross section, therefore flow profile dependent.
Long inlet and outlet sections required
 Errors due to deposits
 Transit time meters require clean liquids
 Doppler meters only for slight contamination or
few gas bubbles
 Doppler meters affected by sound velocity
changes due to temperature, density and
concentration
 Unsuitable for heavily contaminated liquids
 Gas bubbles cause errors
Applications

 Ultrasonic flow meters are perfect for

wastewater applications or any other
dirty liquid which is conductive or water
based.
 Ultrasonic flow meters normally does not
work with distilled water or drinking
water. Aerations would be needed in the
clean liquid applications.
 Ultrasonic flow meters are also best
suited for applications where low
pressure drop, chemical compatibility,
Measurement of torque

 Torque is defined as that force which

tends to produce rotation.
 It is the moment due to tangential force

T=LW
Where,
 T=torque
 L=length of the force arm
 W=force
 Transducer is a device which converts a
non-electrical quantity into electrical.
 Torque is a rotational force.
 To r q u e t r a n s d u c e r s m e a s u r e t h e
torsional force applied between the two
sides of a moving body.
Strain Gauge Torsion Meter

 four bonded strain gauge

 During torsion of a cylinder, strain
(tensile or compressive) exists at 450 to
the axis
 This can be measured by bonded strain
gauges
 The output can be increased by using 4
gauges, so that, adjacent arms have
strains of opposite nature.
Electrical Torsion meter

The main parts of an electrical torsion

meter are as follows:
 A shaft connected between a driving

engine and a driven load.

 Two slotted discs attached on either side
of the shaft.
 Transducer (magnetic or photo electric )

to count pulses from the slotted disc.

Electrical Torsion Meter

Basic principle
 Due to the applied torque, there is a relative
displacement between the two slotted discs.
 Due to this relative displacement of the
slotted discs, a phase shift exists between
the pulse generated by the transducers.
 When these pulses are connected to an
electronic unit, it will show a time lapse
between the two pulses.
 This time lapse between the two pulses is
proportional to the twist of the shaft and the
torque of the shaft.
Electrical Torsion Meter