Chapter 1 : Applications of diodes

1.PN junction diode:

• A diode is a two-terminal unidirectional power electronics device.
• A diode allows current to flow only in one direction
Symbol:

Construction of PN junction diode:

• Generally, silicon and germanium is used to make a diode. .

• The diode is formed by joining both N-type and P-type semiconductors together. This device
is a combination of P-type and N-type semiconductor material hence it is also known as PN
Junction Diode.
• A diode has two terminals;
• one terminal is taken from the P-type layer, and it is known as Anode.
The second terminal is taken from the N-type material, and it is known as Cathode.

Working of PN junction diode:

1. Formation of Depletion region:
• When the p-n junction is formed a few electrons from the n-type diffuse through the junction
and combines with the holes in the p-side and forms negative ions and leaves behind
positive ions in the n-side.
• This results in the formation of the depletion layer, which acts as the barrier and does not
allow any further flow of electrons from the n region to the p region.
 Forward Biasing of PN junction diode
• When the anode is connected with the positive terminal of the battery and cathode is
connected with a negative terminal of the battery, the anode is positive with respect to the
cathode. And the diode is said to be connected in forward bias.
• In the forward bias conditions, the width of the depletion region is very small. If we increase
the voltage more than forward breakover voltage, the majority charge carrier cross the
depletion region. For silicon forward breakover voltage is 0.7V and for germanium forward
breakover voltage is 0.3V.
• When supply voltage increases more than this voltage, Current increases.

Reverse Biasing of PN junction diode:

• When anode terminal of diode is connected with a negative terminal and cathode is
connected with the positive terminal of a battery, the diode is said to be connected in
reverse bias.
• Electrons from N-types gets attracted towards the positive terminal of battery and Holes
from P-type gets attracted towards negative terminal of the battery.
• Width of the depletion layer increases. Ideally no current flows through the circuit but
practically very small amount of current will flow through diode known as “Reverse leakage
current”.
V-I Characteristics of PN junction diode
The V-I characteristics of the PN junction diode is a voltage Vs current graph,

Forward Bias :
• When the PN junction diode is in forward bias then till 0.6V current is zero.
• At 0.6V current just start flowing through diode this voltage is known as Knee
voltage or Cut-in voltage.
• After 0.7V in Silicon diode , current increases rapidly.
.
Reverse Bias:
• When the PN junction diode is in reverse bias, till breakdown voltage current is
very small (In microampere) and constant. This current is minority charge carriers
and this current is known as “Reverse leakage current”.
• After breakdown current increases rapidly.

Applications of PN junction diode:

1. Used in Rectifier circuits.

2. Used in Clipper and Clamper circuits.
3. Used in signal demodulation.
4. Used as a switch in many electronic circuits.
Questions:

1. Draw symbol of PN junction diode

2. Draw and explain experimental set-up for V-I characteristics of PN junction diode.
3. Draw and explain forward biased condition in PN junction diode.
4. Draw and explain Reverse biased condition in PN junction diode.
5. Define Static and Dynamic resistance in PN junction diode.

2. Zener diode

Symbol

Construction of Zener diode:

1. In this design, two properly doped N and P-type materials are used.
2. On both sides, a metallic layer is used to form the cathode and anode terminals.
3. Silicon oxide SiO2 layer is used to prevent the contamination of the junction.

Working of Zener diode:

1. The Zener diode can operate in both forward and reverse bias.
2. In forward bias, it acts as a normal diode
 3. While in reverse bias, till Zener voltage current is very small, constant and this
current is due to minority charge carriers. This current is known as “Reverse
leakage current”.
4. After breakdown current increases but voltage will remain constant.

V-I Characteristics of Zener diode:

1. The Zener diode can operate in both forward and reverse bias.
2. In forward bias, it acts as a normal diode with nominal forward voltage drop and a
large current flow.

3. While in reverse bias, till Zener voltage current is very small and this current is due
to minority charge carriers. This current is known as “Reverse leakage current”.

4. After breakdown current increases but voltage (Vz) will remain constant.

Applications of Zener diode:

1. Zener diode is used as a voltage regulator.
2. Zener diode is used in Overvoltage protection.
3. Zener diodes are used in clipping circuits.
4. It is used in MOSFET protection and meter protection circuit.

Question
1. Draw symbol of Zener diode.
2. Explain V-I characteristics of Zener diode.
3. Write any 2 applications of Zener diode.
4. Compare Zener breakdown and Avalanche breakdown.
Light Emitting diode (LED)
LED is an electronic component that converts electrical energy to light energy.
Symbol

Construction of LED:

1. LED is made of three layers i.e. P-type semiconductor layer, N-type semiconductor
layer and active region.
2. The N-layer has the majority of electrons while the P-layer has a majority of holes.
3. The active region has an equal number of electrons and holes therefore there are
no majority charge carriers. The active region is also known as the depletion region.
The electrons and holes recombine in this region.
Sr no Semiconductor material Colour
1 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) Infra-red
2 Gallium Phosphide (GaP) Red or green
3 Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) Red or yellow
4 Gallium Nitride (GaN) Blue
Working:

1. The working principle of the Light-emitting diode is based on the quantum theory.
It says that when the electron comes down from the higher energy level to the lower
energy level then, the energy emits from the photon.
2. Due to negative terminal of battery electrons gets repelled and enter Active region.
In active region recombination takes place.
3. The recombination indicates that the electrons in the conduction band jump down to
the valence band and will emit light.

V-I characteristics:

1. LED basically operates as a normal diode i.e. It allows current in forward direction;
therefore, the graph only shows forward voltage and forward current.
 2. The forward voltage of LED is greater than the normal diode due to the presence of
an active layer.
3. Different colour of LED has different knee voltage.
Applications:
1. LEDs are used in traffic signs and signal lights.
2. They are used as a display in digital clocks, calculators and digital multimeters, etc.
3. They are also used as an indicator in electrical and electronic circuits and devices to
indicate the supply of power.
4. It is indeed in digital camera flashes and torch lights.
5. Laser LEDs that emit light of a single wavelength are used in optical fiber
communication.
6. Colourful LEDs are used for decorations and in toys.

Q. Compare Diode and LED

Sr no. Diode Light Emitting Diode
1 It doesn’t emit the light LED emits light
2 Silicon and Germanium are used in Gallium arsenide, Gallium phosphide
PN junction diode are used in LED
3 The diode converts the AC into the LED converts light signal into
electrical signal
DC
4 The on-state voltage of the diode is The on-state voltage of LED
0.7v for silicon whereas, for approximately ranges from 1.2 - 2.0 V.
germanium, it is 0.3v
5 Symbol: Symbol

6 Application: Rectifiers, Clipping & Application: Traffic signals,

clamping circuits, automotive headlamps, in medical
devices, camera flashes, etc.

Questions:
1. Draw symbol of LED.
2. List the different materials and with different colours of LED
 3. With neat constructional diagram explain the working of LED.
4. Write any 2 applications of LED.
5. Draw V-I characteristics of LED

Photodiode
Photodiode is an electronic component that convert Light energy into electrical
energy
Symbol:

Construction:

1. It consists of P-types silicon and N- types silicon. In between these layers depletion
layer is formed.

2. Antireflection coating is used so light will no gets reflected out. Silicon oxide
SiO2 layer is used to prevent the contamination of the junction and Light will not enter
through the region where SiO2 layer is present.

Working:
1. For No light condition, the minority charge carriers flow through the junction. That
gives a flow of reverse current. This current is called dark current.

2. When low intensity light strikes on the depletion layer then

a. the electrons will absorb the photon energy and released from the valance
band.
 b. Electron- hole pairs will be generated, and these charge carriers move towards
their respective battery terminal. Hence current increases.

3. As intensity of light increases, Large amount of charge carriers will be generated

and Photocurrent increases.

The light intensity is directly proportional to the electric current.

V-I characteristics

1. Photodiode operates in reverse bias condition.

2. For No light condition very less amount of current flows through diode. This current is
known as “Dark current”
3. As light intensity increases, Current also increases.
Applications:
1. In Fiber optic communication as a receiver
2. Used as a light sensor.
3. Used for accurate light intensity measurement.
4. Used in CD players.
Questions:
1. Draw symbol of photodiode.
2. Explain the construction of photodiode.
3. Explain the working of Photodiode.
4. Draw and explain V-I characteristics of Photodiode.
5. Write any 2 applications of Photodiode.
6. Compare between PN junction diode and Zener diode.
 7. Compare between LED and Photodiode
8. Compare between LED and PN junction diode.

Rectifier
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct
current (DC). The process of converting AC to DC is called rectification.

Rectifier
A.C Pulsating DC

Types of Rectifiers:

1. Half wave rectifier

Circuit diagram

Waveform
 Working of HWR

1. Step down transformer is used. At the secondary side less voltage is available.

2. During Positive half cycle diode is forward biased and will acts as closed switch.
Positive half cycle is obtained at the output.

3. During Negative half cycle diode is Reverse biased and will acts as open switch.
Output is zero.

Full wave Rectifier

a) Centre Tapped FWR

Circuit diagram:

Waveforms:
Working of Centre tapped FWR:
1. Positive Half cycle: Diode ‘D1’ diode is forward biased & ‘D2’ diode reverse biased.
Current will flow through diode D1 and load resistor ‘RL’ .
2. Negative Half cycle: the ‘D2’ diode forward biased & ‘D1’ diode reverse biased.
Current will flow through diode D2 and load resistor ‘RL’. The direction of
current is same through RL in both the half cycle.

Bridge Rectifier”

Circuit diagram:

Waveforms:
 Working
1. Positive Half Cycle: During this period diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased, as
a result there is a current flow which passes through D1, RL and D2 back to bottom
end of secondary thereby passing that positive half cycle to the output.
During this period D3 and D4 are reverse biased so there is no current flow through
them.
2. Negative Half Cycle : During the negative half cycle, diodes D3 and D4 are forward
biased, so the current passes through D3, RL and D4 back to secondary. The
direction of the current through RL is same in both the half cycle.
3. Hence, we obtain two positive half cycles at the output due to a full cycle at the input.
Hence this circuit is called a Full wave rectifier.
Parameters of Rectifiers
1. Ripple factor :
It indicate the amount of A.C component in the rectifier output. It is the ratio of R.M.S
value of AC component to the DC component.

2. Ripple frequency:
It is the number of ripples present in rectifier output per second.

3. TUF: Transformer Utilization factor

It is the ratio of DC output power to the AC rating of the secondary coil of a transformer.
4. PIV: Peak Inverse Voltage

It is the maximum voltage in Reverse biased condition.

5. Efficiency of rectifier:

It is the ratio of DC output power to Input AC power.

Filters
A filter circuit is used to convert pulsating DC to Pure DC. It removes AC component
of the Rectifier output.
The following figure shows the functionality of a filter circuit.

A filter circuit is constructed using two main components, inductor and capacitor.

• An inductor allows dc and blocks ac.

• A capacitor allows ac and blocks DC

Amxkan
Types of Filters
1. Shunt capacitor filter
2. Series Inductor filter
3. LC filter
4. CLC filter

1. Shunt Capacitor filter:

Centre tapped rectifier with shunt capacitor filter
Circuit diagram:

Waveforms:

Working :
• In the circuit diagram, the capacitor C is connected in parallel to the load resistor RL.
Hence the filter is Shunt capacitor filter.
• Working of Rectifier
 • Positive Half cycle: Diode ‘D1’ diode is forward biased & ‘D2’ diode reverse biased.
Current will flow through diode D1 and load resistor ‘RL’ .
• Negative Half cycle: the ‘D2’ diode forward biased & ‘D1’ diode reverse biased.
Current will flow through diode D2 and load resistor ‘RL’. The direction of
current is same through RL in both the half cycle.

• Working of Filter:
1. The pulsating DC produced by the full wave rectifier contains both AC and DC
components.
2. Capacitor allows the AC components and blocks the DC components of the
current.
3. DC voltage is available at the load resistor RL.

2. Series Inductor filter:

Circuit Diagram

Waveforms:

Working :
 • Inductor is connected in series with the Load resistor RL hence it is also known as “
Series Inductor / Series choke filter”
• Working of Rectifier
• Positive Half cycle: Diode ‘D1’ diode is forward biased & ‘D2’ diode reverse biased.
Current will flow through diode D1 and load resistor ‘RL’ .
• Negative Half cycle: the ‘D2’ diode forward biased & ‘D1’ diode reverse biased.
Current will flow through diode D2 and load resistor ‘RL’. The direction of
current is same through RL in both the half cycle.

• Working of Filter:
1. The pulsating DC produced by the full wave rectifier contains both AC and DC
components.
2. Inductor allows the DC components and blocks the AC components of the
current.
2. DC voltage is available at the load resistor RL.
3.Centre tapped FWR with LC filter
Circuit diagram:

Waveforms:

Working:
1.In this circuit, L is connected in series and C is connected in parallel with load resistor.
• Working of Rectifier
• Positive Half cycle: Diode ‘D1’ diode is forward biased & ‘D2’ diode reverse biased.
Current will flow through diode D1 and load resistor ‘RL’ .
• Negative Half cycle: the ‘D2’ diode forward biased & ‘D1’ diode reverse biased.
Current will flow through diode D2 and load resistor ‘RL’. The direction of
current is same through RL in both the half cycle.

• Working of Filter:
1. The pulsating DC produced by the full wave rectifier contains both AC and DC
components.
2. Inductor allows the DC components and blocks the AC components of the
current.
2. DC component will be blocked by capacitor and available at the load resistor
RL.

• Centre Tapped Full wave rectifier with π filter

Waveforms:

Working :
• Inductor is connected in series and Capacitors C1 and C2 are connected in Parallel.
• Working of Rectifier
• Positive Half cycle: Diode ‘D1’ diode is forward biased & ‘D2’ diode reverse biased.
Current will flow through diode D1 and load resistor ‘RL’ .
• Negative Half cycle: the ‘D2’ diode forward biased & ‘D1’ diode reverse biased.
Current will flow through diode D2 and load resistor ‘RL’. The direction of
current is same through RL in both the half cycle.

• Working of Filter:
• The first filter capacitor (C1) allows a.c. component of rectifier o/p output and
blocks the d.c. component. So, capacitor C1 passes d.c components toward the
choke ‘L’
• The choke (L) allows the d.c. component and opposes to the a.c.
component. Therefore, it permits the d.c. component to supply through it, and
blocks AC components.
• The second filter capacitor (C2) passes the a.c. the component which the
choke has unsuccessful to block to the ground. Thus, simply d.c. component shows
across the load.

Questions:
1. Explain Half wave rectifier with neat diagram and waveforms.
2. Explain Centre tapped full wave rectifier with neat diagram and waveforms.
3. Explain Bridge rectifier with neat diagram and waveforms.
4. Compare between Half wave and full wave rectifier.
5. Define a. Efficiency of rectifier b. PIV c. Ripple factor d. Ripple frequency e.
TUF
6. Explain (Half wave / Centre tapped FWR/ Bridge rectifier) with shunt
capacitor filter.
7. Explain (Half wave / Centre tapped FWR/ Bridge rectifier) with series
inductor filter.
8. Explain (Half wave / Centre tapped FWR/ Bridge rectifier) with LC filter.
9. Explain (Half wave / Centre tapped FWR/ Bridge rectifier) with π filter.
10. Compare between L,C,LC,CLC filter.
 Chapter 2 : Bipolar Junction Transistor
1.Types of BJT

2.Working of NPN transistor