Biology

PROTOZOA TO ECHINODERMATA
Taxonomy is the branch which deals the study of nomenclature, classification and principles of
animals. Taxonomy word was given by "Candolle". It is a Greek word. Taxis - arrangements. Nomos - Law
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF TAXONOMY :
Aristotle :- He is known as the "father of zoology". (Book : Historia Animalium)
He is alsoknown as the father of ancient animalclassification. Heclassified animalsinto two groups onthe basis
oftheirnaturalsimilaritiesanddifferencesinto-
(1) Anaima - Those animals which don't have Red blood or in which RBC are absent e.g. Sponges, Cnidaria,
Mollusca, Arthropoda. Echinodermata like Invertebrates.
(2) Enaima :- These animals have red blood. This group includes all vertebrates and it has been further
divided into two sub groups.
(a) Vivipara :- It includes animals which give birth to young-ones. e.g. Man, Whale and other mammals.
(b) Ovipara :- It includes animals which lay eggs. e.g. Amphibians, Pisces, Aves, Reptiles etc.

Carolus Linnaeus :- In 1735 the Binomial system of Nomenclature was devised by Gespard-Bauhin. But
the detailed information about Binomial system was given by Linnaeus. In 1758 in the 10th edition of his book
"Systema Naturae" he gave the classification of known 4236 animals and presented the Binomial system of
nomenclature of animal. He is also known as "Father of Modern-Taxonomy".
In binomial system the name of each animal has two parts. First part has its genus name and second part has
its species name. First latter of genus name must be written in Capital letter and species name is written in
small letters eg. Canis familiaris. In certain species, sub-species are also found. For naming the sub species
three words are used. First name is for genus second for species and third for sub-species. The method of
nomenclature of Sub-species is termed as the Trinomial nomenclature and it was given by "Huxley and
Strickland". eg. Homo sapiens sapiens.
Robert Whittaker (1969):- Proposed Five-Kingdom system classification to show phylogenetic relationship.
(1) Monera (2) Protista (3) Fungi (4) Plantae (5) Animalia

SEQUENCE OF CLASSIFICATION
Smallest unit of classification is "Species". Genus includes various types of species. Family
is made up of various genera. Many families join together to form an order, many orders join together to form
a class and many classes form a Phylum. All the phyla unite to form the largest unit i.e. Kingdom.
Various grouping levels or ranks in classification known as Obligate categories.
e.g. Kingdom — phylum — class — order — family — genus — species
Based on this, all animals are included in the animals kingdom - groups and written in the following Hierarchial
manner. For example obligate category of man can be written as
TAXONS Categorie
Kingdom  Animalia
Phylum  Chordata
Class  Mammalia
Order  Primates
Family  Hominidae
Genus  Homo
Species  Sapiens

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IMPORTANT PHYLA

Storer and Usinger classified whole animal kingdom into 31 phyla. Out of which 10 are major and 21
are minor phyla. Main phyla are :

1. Protozoa - e.g. Amoeba , Paramoecium etc.

2. Porifera - Sponges etc.

3. Coelenterata - Hydra, Jellyfish etc.

4. Ctenophora (minor phylum) - Pleurobrachia etc.

5. Platyhelminthes - Tape worm etc.

6. Nemathelminthes - Nematoda - Ascaris etc.

7. Annelida - Earthworm , Leach etc.

8. Arthropoda - Insects, Scorpion, Flyetc.

9. Mollusca - Snail, Pila, Octopus etc.

10. Echinodermata - Starfishetc.

11. Hemichordata - Balanoglossus

12. Chordata - Fish, Snake, Birds, Monkey etc.

BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION AND CTENOPHORA

1. Animalsshow3structurallevels:Cellularlevel(Porifera),tissuelevel(Coelenterata),orgenlevel(Platyhelminthes)
and organ-system level (Nematoda to Chordata).

2. Animal bodies have 4 kinds of symmetry : Spherical (egg), Asymmetrical (sponges), Radial (Hydra), Biradial
(Combjelly), and bilateral (Flatwormto chordates).

3. Most of the animals develop from 3 germ layers : Ectoderm, Mesoderm and Endoderm (Triploblastic), Few are
Dipblastic, e.g. sponges to Ctenophara.

4. Flatworms are acoelomates, roundworms are pseudocoelomates (Mesoderm in scattered pouches), other animals
above nematodes are coelomates (Body cavity lined with mesoderm)..

5. Most animals are unisexual. Some are bisexual.

6. Digestive tract is incomplete in Coelenterata to Platyhelminthes, and complete in all other phyla.

7. Respiration in animals may be body surface (Hydra), branchial (Prawn), pulmonay, tracheal (Insects), or cutane-
ous (earthworm).

8. Body of Annelids, Arthropods & chordata are segmented (Metamerism)

9. Circulatory system is open in Arthropoda and Mollusca and closed in Annelida and Chordata.

10. Animals have a variety of excretory organs : Flame cells (Liverfluke), intracellular tubules (Roundworms), ne-
phridia (Earthworm), malpighian tubules (Insects), antennary (Crustaceans), kidneys (Vertebrates).

11. Most animals have head, appendages, skeleton and nervous system.

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OUTLINE OF ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION

Kingdom Animalia
Sub Kingdom
(level of organisation)
Protozoa Matazoa
(Protoplasmic level) (Cellular / tissue / organ level)
Infra Kindom
cellular level
Mesozoa (Extinct) Parazoa Eumetazoa/ Enterozoa

Porifera Tissue and organ system

(Cellular level) Division
Symmetry
Radiata Bilateria
Diploblastic Triploblastic
Tissue level Organ system level

(i) Coelenterata-Hydra Sub Division

(ii) Ctenophora
Embryonic development
Protostomous Deuterostomous

Sections Sections
Coelom Eucoelomata

Acoelomata Pseudocoelomata Eucoelomata

Echinodermata
e.g. Platyhelminthes Nemathelminthes Enterocoel Hemichordata
(Nematoda) Chordata
Annelida
Schizocoel Mollusca
Haemocoel
Arthropoda

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PHYLUM - PROTOZOA
- It is 3rd largest phylum. One celled body performed all the biological activities like multicellular animals. So
they are termed as "Acellular" organism, proposed by Dobell.

- Protozoans were first studied by Leeuwenhoek. And the name Protozoa was coined by Goldfuss.
Study of protozons is known as Protozoology.

- They are world wide, Cosmopolitan mostly Microscopic , Aquatic, terrestrial , free living (Amoeba) or
parasitic (Plasmodium). Solitary or colonial (Proterospongia). Causes serious diseases or pathogenic.

- Protozoans are small microscopic, Eukaryotic Unicellular,Colourless, Spherical,Oval,Bellshaped,Spindle shaped

slipper likehaving irregular Symmetry

- Body level of organisation of Protozons is Protoplasmic level. Their protoplasm is uninucleate or multinucleate
animals are naked or some have body bounded by delicate membrane or a firm pellicle/Test/shell/Lorica
(Lose outer covring). In few groups of protozoa CaCO3 & Silica shell's exoskeleton is found. e.g. Radiolarian
group & Foraminiferan group. Number of nuclei vary from one to many. Few show nuclear dimorphism.
e.g. Paramoecium Body perfoms all necessary biological activity so in them subcellular - Physiological
division of Labour is found.

- Locomotion by means of (1) Finger-like Pseudopodia e.g. Amoeba

(2) Whip like Flagella e.g. Euglena

(3) Hairy cillia e.g. Paramoecium

(4) By contraction

(5) No motion

- Nutrition of Protozoans are mainly holozoic (Amoeba), Mixotrophic. (Euglena) , Parasitic (Plasmodium),
Saprozoic and Digestion is intracellular take place in food vacuole.

- Respiration and Excretion take place by exchange of gases through body surface. Some excretion may
occure through contractile vacuole. Nitrogenous waste is Ammonia. Some fresh water protozoans get rid of
excess water through contractile vacuole known as Osmoregulation. Amoeba has one and Paramoecium
has two vacuoles.

- Reproduction takes place by

Asexual Sexual

(1) Binary fission (Amoeba) (1) Syngamy (Plasmodium)

(2) Transverse fission (Paramoecium) (2) Conjugation (Paramoecium)

(3) Longitudinal fission (Trypansoma, Euglena)

(4) Multiple fission (Plasmodium)

(5) Budding (Ephelota)

Some also form cyst which help in unfavourable condition for reproduction of organism. They do not have
natural - death because in unicellular animals there is no division of somatoplasm & germplasm so these are
considered as immortal.

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WITNESS FEW COMMON PROTOZOANS

Cytostome Flagellum
Paraflagellar Cytopharynx
bodyStigma Short flagellum
Basal granules Reservoir
Contractile vacuole
Paramylum bodies Ac ces sory Nucleolus
Nucleus
vacuoles Attached flagellum
Undulating membrane
Chromatophores Mastigonemes
Blepharoplast or Basal granule

Pellicular striations Free flagellum Kinetoplast

Endoplasm
Ectoplasm
Endoplasm Nucleolus Pellicle Reserve food
Chromonemata granules
Pellicle Nucleoplasm
Ectoplasm Trypanosoma gambiense
Nucleus

Euglena viridis

Anterior flagella
Flagellum Undulating membrane
Feeding appara-
Nucleus
tus
Nucleus Cytoplasm

Axos tyle
Posterior flagella
Pseudopodia
Contractile vacuole
Trichomonas vaginalis
M astigamoeba

Anterior flagella
Flagellum Rostral cap
Fibril Rostrum
Lateral flagella
Basal granule Parabasal
bodies Nucleus
Kinetoplast
Posterior flagella
Cytoplasm
Nucleus Wood particle
A
B Trichonympha
Leishamania donovani :
(A) Leishmania form, Ectoplasm
(B) Leptomonad form
Endoplasm
Nucleus
Pseudopodium Endosome
Ectoplasm Food vacuoles
Endoplasm

Entamoeba gingivalis
Food vacuoles
Ingested R.B.C.
Nucleus
Endosome Plasmalemma
Contractile vacuole Food vacuoles Pseudopodia
Trophozoite of Entamoeba histolytica Nucleus

Spine
Ectoplasm

Hyaline
layer
Pores Uroid
Plasmagel
Shell Mitochondria Endoplasm
Hyaline cap
Biurets and triurets
Shell of Globigerina Structure of Amoeba proteus

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Nucleus Contractile vacuole Axopodium

Food vacuoles Axial filament
Food vacuole
Pseudopo- Nucleus
dium Medulla
Cortex
Uroid
Contractile vacuole

Pelomyxa (Chaos-chaos)
Anterior end
Actinophrys
Trichocysts
Cilia
Anterior contractile vacuole Pellicle
(in diastole) Ectoplasm
Feeder canals Endoplasm
(in systole)
Macronu-
Micronucleus
cleus Oral groove
Food vacuoles Vestibule
Buccal cavity
with oral cilia
Feeder canals Cytostome
(in diastole) Cytopharynx

Posterior contractile Cytopyge

vacuole (in systole)
Newly forming
food vacuole
Caudaltuft of cilia

Paramecium caudatum
Inner cilia
Micropyle
Peristomial disc
Apical cap
Micro tubules Vesti-
Outer cilia
bule cacity
Buccal
Pellicle Macronucleus Food vacuole
Micronucleus Contractile vacuole
Secretory organelles Cytostome
Cytopharynx

Nucleus

Mitochondrion Stalk

Endoplasmic reticulum

Ultra structue of a
Sporozoite of Plasmodium
Vorticella

Vesti-
Large Tentacles Small Tentacles
Buccal cavity bule
(Piercing) (Sucking)
Cytostome
Cytopharynx
Contractile vacuole
C.V.
Micronucleus
Macronucleus
Food vacuole
Cyto- Contractile Body
pyge vacuole
Stalk
Balantidium coli
Ephelota

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PHYLUM - PORIFERA (Common Name - Sponge)

- Sponges are primitive muklticellular animals. Robert Grant gave the name Porifera. Study of sponges is
known as Parazoology. Phylogenetically evolved from choanoflagellates (Proterospongia)
- All are aquatic, generaly marine but few are found in fresh water also. They are sessile, solitary or
colonial. Entire body with pores i.e. numerous mouthlets Ostia and one opening for exit Osculum.

- Sponges have various body form and shapes with irregular shape mostly Asymmetrical. (Radial symmetry in
Leucosolenia),

- Sponges have Cellular level of organisation with two germ layer i.e. Diploblastic and do not posses head and
appendages.

- Bodywall consists of
(1) Outer Ectoderm (Dermal layer) or Pinacoderm
(1) Pinacocytes(Flatcell)
(2) Porocytes (oval)
(2) Inner Endoderm (Choanocytic layer) or Choanoderm
(1) Collar cell or Choanocytes (Flagellated)
-CharactristicofPorifera
(3) Between these two layers gelatinous material Mesenchyme is there.
Consist of Amoebocytes

Scleroblast – For skeleton

Spongioblast – For skeleton
Thesocytes – For food storage (Glycogen)
Phagocytes – To engulf by phagocytosis
Amoebocytes Trophocytes – For Distribution offood
Archaeocytes – Formation ova & spermatazoa (Totipotant cells)
Collenocytes – Connective tissuecell
Chromocytes – Pigmented
Myocytes – Highly contractile (at osculum)

Osculum

Dermal layer Porocyte

Choanocytic layer Ostium

Spongocoel

Pinacocyte
Spongocoel Mesenchyme
Amoebocyte
Dermal ostia

Spicule

Mesenchyme

Flagellum

Collar Choanocyte
Base
BODY WALL OF PORIFERA

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- Body wall enclosed a large cavity the spongocoel or paragastriccavity with small cavitied canals.

Choanocytes with flagella is lined in Spongocoel and canal.

Ceaselless beating of flagellate caused current of water enter through ostia perforating porocytes and various
canals and enters in spongocoel and finally leave through large aperature osculum.

- Canal system or water transport system : Canal system of porifera helps in nutrition, respiration &
excretion.

- Skeleton is internal, consist of tiny calcarious Spicules - calcoblast or siliceous spicules - silicoblastor fine
spongin fibre - spongioblast, located in mesenchyme.

Scleroblast secrets spicules and Spongioblast secrets spongin fibre.

- Digestive cavity and mouth is absent. Nutrition is holozoic. Digestion is intracellular and occurs in food
vacuoles of choanocytes.

Food particle strained out by collar cell and pass them to amoebocytes.

Food is stored in thesocytes.

Distribution of food from ingestive cell to other is brought by the movable amoeboid cell.

- Respiration and Excretion takes place by diffusion of gases through body surface. Excretory matter is Ammonia.

– Sponges do not have nervous system.

- Reproduction takes place by means of

(A) Asexual - By Budding/Fragmentation - Special cell mass Gemmules containing Archaeocytes.

Endogenous budding of asexual reproduction in sponge is known as Gemmulation (In unfavourable

condition).

(B) Sexual - Sponges are Hermaphrodite, fertilization internal and cross fertilization (Protogynous
condition).

Formation of ova & spermatozoa

 Zygote
Fertilization-Internal takesplace
(From Archaeocytes )
in another sponge through water Cleavage - Equal and Holoblastic
current segmentation

Free living larva escapes
(1) Amphiblastula (Scypha)
from osculum
Sponge Larva (Parenchymula (Leucosolenia)
(3) Stereogastrula (Euplectella)

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PO RI FE RA
(On the basis of Skeleton)

Calcarea Hexactinellida Demospongia

Skeleton - Calcareous spicules 6 rayed siliceous spiculas (Glass 1 or 4 rayed silicious spicules or
sponge) sponginfibre

Inhabit - All marine in shallow water All marine and inhabit in Marine or fresh in deep or shallow
deepwater water.

e.g. Leucosolenia Euplectella - (Venus flower Spongia (Euspongia) - (Bath

(smallest) basket,Bridalgift inJapan) sponge)
Scypha (Sycon) - Urn Spongilla - (Fresh water sponge)
sponge Hy a lo n e m a - Ephydatia - (Sulpher sponge)
 (Glass rope sponge)
 Freshwater
Le u c illa Ref. 
Cliona - (Boring sponge) harmful
 P h e ro n e m a -
Ref. C la t h rin a  to Oyster
Gra n t ia (Bowl sponge)
 Hippospongia - (Horse- sponge
or Horny sponge)
Chalina - Marmaid's gloves

Poterion - Neptun's Cup


O s c a re lla -
 Skeleton absent

C h o n d ro s in a -

Ref.  Skeleton absent
H a lich o n d ria -

 Bread sponge
H a liclo n a -

 Finger sponge

Largest sponge - Spheciospongia

Hypothetical simple sponge & between larva & sponge - Olynthus
Shrimps – (Spongicola) A crustacean, shows commensalism with Euplectella

UNIQUE FEATURES
1. Pores all over the body.
2. Cellular levelofbodyorganisation.
3. A canal system of intercommunicating cavities for the passage of a water current.
4. Lack of mouth and digestive cavity.
5. Choanocytes lining the main cavity (spongocoel) or certain canals (radialcanals).
6. Presence of spongin fibres.

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WITNESS FEW COMMON SPONGES

Osculum
Dermal ostia
Osculum
Individuals
Twig
Bud

Ostia
Osculum
Stolon
Spongilla around a twig
A colony of Leucosolenia
Euspongia Osculum
Oscular fringe of
monaxon spicules
Oscular fringe of Oscular
monaxon Triradiate spicules
sieve plate
spicules

Body Network of
spicules spicules

Dermal ostia Dermal ostia

Ostia
Body

Common base Root tuft of

long spicules
Substratum

Venus's flower basket

Sycon ( = Scypha)
(Euplectella)
Olynthus

PHYLUM - COELENTERATA
- Leuckart named Coelenterata. Hatschek named Cnidaria on the basis of stinging cells.
- Mostly marine, few fresh-water (Hydra.) Carnivorous, some are fixed or free floating.
- Coelenterates have two types of forms (Dimorphic)

(1) Polyp (2) Medusa

-Cylindrical in shape - Umbrella like

- Mostly sessile, but some times motile - Free swimming
- May be solitory or Colonial -Alwayssolitary

Either or both zooids may occur in a species.

Ifboth arefoundin a species, twoform alternatein life cycle. (AlternationofgenerationorMetagenesis)

Polyps produce medusae as exully and medusae form the polyps sexually eg :- Obelia
- Group of different types of zooids in polyp or medusa shows polymorphism.
- Coelenterates areusually having radial symmetry, Some Anthozoans have Biradial symmetry.
- Coelenterates have two Germs layers (1) Ectoderm (2) Endoderm i.e. They are Diploblastic (mesogloea
between two layers)
- Coelenterates have Tissue level of organisation.
- Cnidoblast or Chidocyte (contain stinging capsule as Nematocyst) present on the tentacles and body, which are
used for anchorage, defence and for the capture of Prey.

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– Body of coelenterates may be supported by horny or calcareous exoskeleton. eg. :- Corals
- Cavity of the Coelenteron is having single aperture. Mouth serve both purpose i.e. Incomplete digestion
tract (Blind sac).
Digestion is intercellular/extracellular as well as Intracellular i.e. takes place in Coelenteron as well as in
food vacuole.
Coelenteron is also responsible for distribution of food besides partly digesting it. This dual role named coe-
lenteron as Gastrovascular cavity.
- Respiration and Excretion takes place by diffusion of gases through body surface.
Excretory matter is Ammonia.
- Nervous system consist of non-polar neurons & sensory cell.
Cleavage is Holoblastic. Development includes larva (Indirect).
Larva of Obelia - Planula(free living).
Larva of Aurelia - Ephyra.

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Coelenterata is classified into three classes.

Hydrozoa Scyphozoa Anthozoa (Actinozoa)

- Medusa form is more common - Only polyp form
- Polyp & medusa often show polymorphism
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& metagenesis.
e.g. Hydra - Fresh water polyp
Obelia - the sea fur, (Polyp , Medusa shows
metagenesis)
Physalia - the portuguese man-of-war.
e.g. This class has two types of animal
(1) Anemones - Skeleton absent
e.g. Aurelia - the Jelly fish, Moon jelly ,
Larva- Ephyra Adamsia - Sea anemone
Rhizostoma - Many mouth (Polystomum) Metridium - Sea anemone (commensalism
with Hermit crab)
Pilema
Shows commensalism with Hermut crab
Cyanea - Sun Jelly

Ref.
(Neurotoxic, gas gland present) (2) Coral - CaCO3 Skeleton
Atolla
Meandrina - Brain coral
Periphylla Pennatula - Sea pen
Bougainvillea
Gorgonia - Sea fan
Porpita
Astraea - the star coral

Ref.
Vellela - Littlesail
Pteroides - Sea feather
Tubularia
Renilla - Sea pansy
Millipora (Sting coral) Tubipora - Organ - pipe coral
Alcyonium - Dead man's finger (Soft coral)
Ref.

Corallium - Red coral (Moonga)

Heliopora - Blue coral
Oculina - Eye coral
Madrepora - Stag-Horn coral
Fungia - Mushroom coral
Aurelia - the Jelly fish

Physalia - the portuguese man-of-war.

Sea Anemone
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UNIQUE FEATURES

– Tissue level of organisaton of the body.

– Special stinging cells, the cnidoblats, for defence and offence.
– Incomplete digestive tract bounded by body wall.
– A simple nervous system in the form of a network of nerve cells and fibres.
– Simple gonands without gonoducts.

WITNESS FEW COELENTERATES

Crest or Sail Pneumatophore

or Float

Mouth
Blastostyle bearing Smaller Hypostome
gonophores dactylozooid
Tentacles
Gastrozooids Larger
dactylozooid Gastric region
Tentacles bearing
cnidoblasts Stalk
Substratum

Pedal disc
Representative of class - Hydrozoa - Physalia
Hydra in extended : Contracted
Stinging cell
Marginal
tentacles Oral disc
Mouth Gonads
Radial canals

Polyps
Velarium
Coraluum Oral Marginal tentacles
Scapus Astraea arms
Basal disc
Groove
Aurelia
Representative of class :
Anthozoa (M etridium)

Hydranth
expanded

Hydranth
contracted Hydrotheca
Coenosarc
Perisarc

Medusa
Blastostyle
e buds
Autozooid
Siphonozooid Pinna
Rachis Gonotheca
Bud of a new hydrocaulus
Peduncle
Hydrocaulus
Annular
End bulb Stolons
rings
Pennatula A hydrocaulus of Obelia colony

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PHYLUM - CTENOPHORA
- Ctenophora name was given by Eschescboltz. These animals are known for their beauty and delicate
nature. In sunlight their comb-plate give the effect of a rainbow. The animals of this phylum are known as
"Sea-gooseberries" or "Comb-jellies" or "Sea-walnuts". Nematoblasts are absent, so they are also called
"acnidaria".

- All animals are marine and pelagic (float on sea surface) and show Bioluminescence (Property of emit light)
is well marked.

- Body form may be spherical, cylindrical or Pear-shaped.

Body is soft transparent jelly like having Biradial symmetry with

tissue grade body organisation .

- Animals are Diploblastic.

- Locomotion takes place by the presence of 8 ciliary comb plates on

the body surface.

– Digestionisbothextracellular andintracelluar. Pleurobrachia

- Skeletal, Excretory and Respiratory systems are Absent.

- Animals are carnivorous. A pair of long solid tentacles are present. In place of nematablasts on the tentacles
a special type of cells are present called Lasso-cells which help in catching the prey.

- All animals are Bisexual .Only sexual reproduction is found. Fertilization is external.

Development is of indirect type. Life cycle involves a free living Cydippid larval stage. Cleavage is Holoblas-
tic determinate and unequal.

– Regeneration & paedogenesis is normally found.

e.g. Pleurobrachia Ref. B e ro e - Swimming eye of Cat.

Velamen
C e s t u m - "Venus's girdle"

C t e n o p la n a - Commensal with Alc y o n iu m .
Ref. 
H o rm ip h o ra
Eu c h lo ra ru b ra - With cnidoblast ctinophore. (Exception)

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PHYLUM - PLATYHELMINTHES
- Gagenbaur suggested the name Platyhelminthes. Includes flat worms (Dorsoventrally flattend), most primitive
bilateral animals, Free living (terrestrial, fresh water or marine) or parasite.
- Study of worms causing parasitic infestation in human is Helminthology. Most members of this phylum are
mostly the endoparasites of vertebrate. Some are found in aquatic habitat.
- Body organisation is of organ grade.
- Body is Triploblastic i.e. body is formed from three germinal layers i.e. Ectoderm, Endoderm & Mesoderm.
– Body is Bilaterally symmetrical.
- Locomotary organs are absent in these animals but adhesive organs are present like suckers, hook etc are
presentin parasitic form.
- Epidermis is syncytial and is some times ciliated. On the body wall of parasitic animals a thick cuticle ispresent
i.e. Tegument. Thick cuticle protects the parasite from the digestive-enzymes of the host. It is secreted by
Epidermis.

- Muscles in the body-wall are mesodermal. Below the epidermis longitudinal, circular and oblique muscles
are present.

- Nervous system is ladder like.

- These are acoelomate. In between various organs a solid, loose mesodermal tissue called Mesenchyma or
Parenchyma is present.

- In Turbellaria and Trematoda class an incomplete (Blind sac body plan) and without anus
digestivesystemis present. In animals of classCestoda, digestive system iscompletelyabsent. They absorb nutri-
ents from the host directly through their body surface.

- Skeleton and circulatory systems are absent. Turgidity of the fluid in the parenchymal meshes maintains the
form of the body (Hydroskeleton)

- Animal respire through body surface. Anaerobic respiration in internal parasite like Taenia.

- Excretory organs are protonephridia or flame-cells. Flame - cells are also termed as the Solenocytes.
They also help in osmoregulation.

- All animals of this phylum are Bisexual. Reproductive system is complex and well-developed.
Fertilization may be self or cross and internal. Cleavage is spiral & determinate. Development may be
direct or indirect. In indirect development, larva may be one or of more types. Some members like planaria
possess high regeneration capacity.

Dugesia (Planaria) - Found in fresh water, Nocturnal, Cannibalism, slow creeping omnivorous. Reproduce
sexual as well as asexual (Transverse Binary fission), good power of regeneration. Pharynx can be everted.
Fasciola - (Liver fluke), Found in the bile ducts of liver of Sheep & Goat (Digenetic endoparasite) It causes
Liver-rot or Cirrhosis.
Spiny cuticle, Attached to bile ducts by posterior suckers. is found. Respire anaerobically. Holozoic - feeds on
blood, bileand epithelial cell of bileduct. Hermaphrodite may undergo self or cross fertilization.
Lifehistoryinvolvetwo hosts(Digenetic)
(1) Primary host - Sheep & Goat
(2) Secondary host - Garden-snail (Planorbis, Lymnea, Bulinus)

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Divided into three classes
Turbellaria Trematoda Cestoda
Fresh water / Marine water Endoparasite, known as flukes, Endo-Parasite Intestinal parasite,
Freeliving or flat worms. known as tape worms
Planarians or Eddy worm. e.g. Taenia solium - Pork tapeworm
e.g. Fasciola (Sheep liver flukes Taenia saginata - Beef tapeworm
Dugesia Planaria Schistosoma (the blood Echinococcus - Dog tapeworm
Microstomum - flukes) Hymenolepis -Smallest tape-
Enemy of Hydra Paragonimus (Lung fluke worm) worm in man's intestine - 10 cm,
Macrostomum (in lungs of man and pig) 200 proglottids (Monogenetic)
Ref.

Ref.
Mesostoma Diplozoon - Ectoparasite on
Amphilina
G un d a thegillsoffish.(Monogenetic)
Rellietina - Bird's tape worm

Ref.
Convoluta - Symbiont on Opisthorchis - Human liver
Phyllobothrium
Zoochlorella and Diatoms, flukeorchineseliver fluke
Moniezea – Endoparisite of
algae.
ruminates
Ichthyophaga - Parasite on
fishes.

Shows special multiplication in larva stage namely Miracidium, Sporocyst, Redia and Cercaria and
Metacercaria.
Infective stage for Primary host (Sheep) - Metacercaria.
Infective stage for Secondary host (Snail) - Miracidium. (Free swiming)
Schistosoma - (Blood fluke) Found in veins of human bladder and intestine. Unisexual , Large male carries female
in a groove gynaecophoric canal on ventral side. Life history shows sexual dimorphism
Life historyinvolve two hosts(Digenetic)
(1) Primary host - Man
(2) Secondary host - Garden-snail (Planorbis, Lymnea, Bulinus)
Shows special multiplication in larva stage namely Miracidium, Sporocyst and Cercaria.
Infected stage of Primary host (Man) - Cercaria.
Infected stage of Secondary host (Snail) - Miracidium. (Free swiming)
Larva enters human body by boring in skin while bathing in ponds .
It damages the liver &causes intestinal disorder - Schistosomiasisor Bilharzia
Taenia solium :- (Pork tapeworm) Flate, white ribbon - like, Size - 4m x 6mm
Three region (1) head or scolex with hooks & suckers (2) Neck-for forming new proglottides
(3) long strobila ~ 850 proglottides. T. Solium is human gut parasite. Attached to intestinal wall by hooks &
suckers. Saprozoic nutrition, anaerobic respiration. Hermaphrodite - Self fertislization (Between two different
Proglottids of the same species). Man gets infection from undercooked pork containing encysted larvae cysticerci.
Life historyinvolve two hosts(Digenetic)
(1) Primary host - Man
(2) Secondary host - Pig
Shows special multiplication in larva stage namely Onchosphere, Hexacanth, Bladder worm and
Cysticercus
Infective stage of Primary host Man - Cysticercus.
Infective stage of Secondary host Pig - Onchosphere
It causes the disease Cysticercosis

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There are three types of Proglottids.

(1) (2) (3)

Immature proglottids Mature proglottids Gravid proglottids
- with developing sex organs - Fully formed sex organs - Uterus Packed with capsule
- Eachhassetoftestisandovary.


Detached from strobila
(Known as Apolysis)
& pass out in host faeces as a
capsules(egg+yolkcellinashell)


Man gets infected from - Development of Haxacanth & - Development of Embryo
bladder worm. - Pig swallowing embryo
undercooked pork. (Measly pork -
havingcysticerci)
 - Developed to Cysticercus larva  Onchosphere larva
Remain alive in the pig muscles
Disease - Taeniasis/Cysticercosis - InfectedstageofPig
for 5-6 years (Infected stage of Man)

WITNESS FEW COMMON FLAT WORMS

Eye
Mouth
Rostellum
Oral or Anterior sucker
Hooks
Gonopore
Auricle
Acetabulum Sucker Scolex
Mouth

Neck
Genital pore
Proglottids
Pharynx

Fasciola
Planaria

Oral sucker
Acetabulum
Rostellum Mouth
Suckers
Male-worm
Mature proglottid Scolex
Gynaecophoric
Scolex Neck canal
Female worm

Immature
progtottides Gravid
Hooks Suckers
proglottides

Echinococcus granulosus
Mature proglottides Schistosoma
Taenia solium

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Pre-Medical
Taenia saginata (Beef Tapeworm)-
Digenetic - Primary host - Man
Secondary - Cow sometime Sheep
The Beef tapeworm, infects the beef eating population. Scolex without rostellum & hooks.
Longer than T. solium
Echinococcus - (Dog tapeworm or Hydatid worm)
Digenetic - Primary host - Dog
Secondary - Pig
With two or three proglottids.
It causes the disease Hydatid

UNIQUE FEATURES
– Bilateral symmetry.
– Organ level of organization.
– Head with sense organs at the front end,
– Three germ layers,
– Muscle layers both in the body wall and gut
– Brain ring and nerve cords,
– Organised excretory system, and
– Gonoducts and copulatory organs
.

PHYLUM - ASCHELMINTHES (NEMATHELMINTHES OR NEMATODA)

- Gagenbaur established the Phylum Nemathelminthes. Phylum includes round worms (Circular in cross section).
- Nematods are found everywhere in fresh water, sea water, soil humus-rich soil. Many as a parasite in plants
and animals.
- Animal of this phylum are Cylindrical, tapering at both end without segmentation.
- Symmetry - Bilateral, Germ layer - Triploblastic, Level of organisation - Organ-system level and
having tube within tube plan.
- Anterior end does not show distinct head.
- No appendage.
- Body wall consist of
(1) Cuticle - Firm, non living, resistant to digestive enzymes ofhost.
(2) Epidermis - Without cilia. Syncytial i.e. a continuous layer of cytoplasm having scattered nuclei.
(3) Muscle layer - Longitudinal.
- Body cavity is there between body wall and digestive tract. Which is not lined by mesothelium i.e. Pseudocoel
(developed from blastocoel) and contain Pseudocoelomic fluid.
- Skeleton is not mineralized. High fluid pressure in the pseudocoelom maintains body shape. It is called
Hydroskeleton.

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 Biology
- Digestive tract is complete and differentiated into mouth, pharynx, intestine & Anus.
Mouth is surrounded by 3 - lips.
Pharynx is muscular. It is used to suck of food. Intestine is non muscular.
- Respiration is through body surface by diffusion.
- Circulatory system is undeveloped
- Nervous system comprises of circum pharyngeal ring (Brain). Sense organs like Papillae (Tangoreceptors),
Amphids (Chemoreceptor) are present on lip.
Paird unicellular Phasmids (chemoreceptor) are found near hind end of body.
- Excretory system is H-shape consists of gland cells or intracellular canal or Protonephridia
- (Renette cell).
Excretory matter is ammonia.
- Reproduction system is developed and sexes are generally separate (Dioecious).
Sexual dimorphism is present.
Male is smaller than female and curved from its caudal end.
Male has Penial spiculas for copulation. Genital tract joins digestive track to form cloaca.
Female is larger than male and straight.
Genital track open independently. Female lays numerous eggs with Chitnous shell.
Fertilization is internal and development is mostly direct.
Cleavage is Holoblastic spiral and determinate type.
Number of cells are fixed from larva to adult development known as Eutely.
Nematodahasbeenclassifiedintotwoclassesonthebasisofspecilisedsenseorgan,Caudalreceptor&Excretorysystem.
1. PHASMIDAIA :
e.g. Ascaris - Intestinal round worm (in small intestine) larva - Rhabditiform/Rhabditoid
Enterobius - Pin worm or seat worm (in large intestine)
Ancylostoma - Hookworm (in small instestine)
Wuchereria - Filarial worm (in Lymph vessels/gland) by female culex mosquito.Viviparous (Digenetic)
(Causes elephantiasis)
Loa - loa - Eye worm. (African eye worm)
Trichuris - Whip worm (in intestine)
Rhabditis - Free living
Trichinella - (First in intestine then in strippedmuscle)
Dracunculus - Guinea worm (madina worm) or Fiery serpent (Digenetic - Cyclops as intermediate)
(Oldest discovered Nematode)
2. APHASMIDA
eg. Desmoscolex
UNIQUE FEATURES
– Syncytial epidermis.
– Body wall musculature of longitudinal fibres only.
– Pseudocoel, a body cavity without a lining of mesodermal coelomic epithelium.
– Complete digestive tract,
– Fluid-filledbodycavity,
– Separate sexes.
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WITNESS FEW ROUND WORMS

Mouth Adult eye work,

bounded by lips Loa loa, from eye

Excretory pore

Lateral line Larva of W uchereria

bancrofti from blod
Gonopore
Pinworm, Enterobius
vermicularis from caecum

Cloacal aperture

B
Tail Penial setae
A or Spicules Hookwrom, Necator
Tail americanus, from intestine
Anus
Whipworm Tirichuris Guinea worm, Dracuncu-
trichiura, from caecum lus medinensis, being
Morphlogy of Ascaris :
wound on a stick
(A) Male, (B) Female, (C) Enface view of mouth and
lips Some roundworms that prarasitize man

PHYLUM - ANNELIDA
- Lamarck coined the term Annelida.

– Free living found in moistsoil, fresh water, sea or few are parasite.

- Body is Soft elongated, cylindrical or flattened divided into segments or metamers by ring like, groves called
Annuli.

- Symmetry - Bilateral, Germ layer - Triploblastic, Level of organisation - Organ-system level having
tube within tube plan.

- Anterior end forms a distinct head with sense organ in few annelids.

– Appendages are simple, unjointed, and locomotory having Chitinous Setae

and Parapodia with setae (help in swimming).

- Body wall consist of

(1) Cuticle -

(2) Epidermis -

(3) Muscle layer - (1) Circular layer, (2) Longitudinal layer.

Which help in Locomotion.

Body wall may have minute chitinous setae.

- First Protostomi eucoelomate animals. Examples of Annelida :

(a) Nereis (b) Hirudinaria

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 Biology
Body cavity is true coelom lined by mesodermal coelomic epithelium. Schizocoel.

It isdividedby transverseseptainto compartment.Itis filledwith coelomicfluidthat containscells.

- As such there is no Skeleton . Fluid filled coelom serves as a hydrostatic skeleton.

- Digestive tract is complete, straight and extends through entire body. The gut has both circular and longitudinal
muscles. Few annelids are sanguivorous. Digestive gland are developed for the first time in Annelida.

- Respiration is through skin i.e. Cutaneous respiration. Some have gills (branchial respiration).

- Circulatory system is closed. Some blood vessels enlarge to act as pumping heart.
(Heart appear first time in annelids)

The blood is red with haemoglobin dissolved in plasma (Erythrocruorin). It has amoeboid corpuscles only. Few
Annelids like Seballa have Chlorocruorin as a respiratory pigment also.

- Excretory organ is Nephridia . Coiled tubules also helps in osmoregulation.

Excretory matter (1) Ammonia in aquatic form (2) Urea in land form

- Nervous system consist of A circumenteric nerve ring , Double, midventral , nerve cord with paired ganglia.

- Sexes may be separate or united. Asexual reproducton by budding or fission in some cases also.

– Cleavage is spiral and determinate unqual & holoblastic. Regeneration is usually found. Life history
includs a trochophore larva in few Annelids.

UNIQUE FEATURES

To suck impure blood by Leech is called Phlebotomy

Metameric segmentation

Nephridia for excretion and osmoregulation.

Closed circulatory system with respiratory pigment dissolved in the plasma.

Setae in the body wall in most forms.

Head, appendages and respiratory organs in some cases,

Ciruclar and longitudinal muscles in both body wall and gut wall.

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22
"Annelida" is classified into 4 classes on the basis of presence or absence of sense organ and position of setae
Polychaeta
1. Most of the members are found in
sea water.
2. Cephalisation is more distinct. Head
with well developed eyes, tentacles
and olfactory palps.
3. Setae numerous and are present in
parapodia, parapodia helps in
locomotion and also in respiration.
Suckers are absent.
4. Clitellum absent.
5. Animals unisexual and gonads are
formed only during breeding season.
6. Development is indirect. Larval
stage is called Trochophore.
e.g. Nereis - Sand worm
Aphrodite - Sea mouse
Arenicola - Lug worm
Seballa - Peacock worm
Chaetopterus - paddle worm
shows bio -florescence, great power
of regeneration.
Eunice - Palalo worm
Polynoe - Scale worm
Ref.
Terebella - respire by gills
Glycera – Smooth blood worm
Oligochaeta
1. Most of the members are terrestrial,
but some are aquatic.
2. Cephalisation absent. No distinct
head, eyes, tentacles and olfactory
palps.
3. Setae for locomotion. Number of
setae is limited and situated in micro
bags present in body wall, a single
setae is present in a bag. Parapodia
& sucker are absent.
4. Clitellum is present permanently for
cocoon formation. Fertilization is
external and is held in cocoon.
5. Bisexual or hermaphrodite cross
fertilisation & external.
6. Development is direct. No larva.
e.g.
Pheretima
N. India
Eutyphaeus
Lumbricus - European earthworm
Dravida
Megascolex - Largest earth worm.
(S.India)
Dero – Fresh watered
Nais – Fresh watered
Tubifex - Blood worm (Fresh water)
indicator of organic loading
Hirudinea Archiannelida
1. Aquatic, terrestrial, ectoparasite and 1. Members of this class are salt
sanguivorous. water animals with small body.
Pre-Medical
2. Cephalisation absent. No distinct head, 2. Cephalisation absent. No distinct
eyes, tentacles and olfactory palps. head, eyes, tentacle present and
3. Parapodia and setae are absent.Suckers olfactory palps.
at both the ends. 3. Parapodia and setae are absent.
4. Clitellum (9-11 segments) developed
only in breeding season. 4. Clitellum absent.
5. Animals of this class are bisexual.
Fertilizationis external. 5. Animals are unisexual
6. Development is direct. No larva.
– Number of segments are fixed ie. 33 6. Development is indirect. Larval
segments. stage is called Trochophore.
– Anticoagulant Hirudin – in the saliva. – External segmentation is not very
– Saw like chitinous teeth in buccal-cavity.
distinct.
Circulation with haemocoelic system.
– Haemocoelomic system is present.
Coelom is divided in tubes having
e.g. Polygordius - C.L.between
coelomic fluid and haemoglobin. A
Annelida & Mollusca (living fossil)
special mesodermal tissue Botryoidal
tissue made up of adipose tissue for fat Larva known as Loven’s Larva
storage is present. Protodrillus
e.g. Hirudinaria - Fresh water leech Dinophilus
Ref.
Bonellia - Sea leech- male is ill Nerilla
developed and lives permanently in the
uterusof female.(unisexual)
Pontobdella - Skate sucker.
Hirudo - Medicinal leech (Highly
modified)
Glossiphonia - Fresh water leech
Ref.
Haemadipsa - Terrestrial leech
Haemopis - Horse leech
Acanthobdella - Ectoparasite with setae
C.L. between oligochaeta -Hirudinea