MAT3707/201/2/2018

Tutorial Letter 201/2/2018

Discrete Mathematics: Combinatorics

MAT3707

Semester 2

Department of Mathematical Sciences

SOLUTIONS TO ASSIGNMENT 01
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SOLUTIONS TO ASSIGNMENT 01 (SEMESTER 2)

CLOSING DATE: 17 AUGUST 2018
UNIQUE NR.: 840205

The answers to only some of the questions will be marked.

1. The list of degrees of the vertices of a graph, arranged in non-decreasing order, is called the degree
sequence of the graph.

(a) Draw two non-isomorphic graphs with degree sequence 1,1,1,1,2,2. (4)

(b) Draw two non-isomorphic graphs with degree sequence 1,1,3,3,3,3. (4)

Explain in each case why your graphs are non-isomorphic.

Solution

(a)

and

The two graphs are non-isomorphic since the two vertices of degree 2 are adjacent in the first
graph, while in the second graph, they are nonadjacent.
(b)

and

The two graphs are non-isomorphic since the first graph is disconnected while the second
graph is connected.
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2. For each of the following pairs of graphs and directed graphs determine whether they are isomorphic
or not. If they are, give a vertex correspondence. If they are not, give a reason why.

(a)

a 1
b c

6 2

5 3
d e f
4

(5)
Solution
The two graphs are isomorphic. One vertex correspondence is given by
a b c d e f
1 3 5 2 4 6
(b)

h a 8 1

g b 7 2

f c 6 3

e d 5 4

(5)
Solution
The two graphs are not isomorphic. Here is a proof by contradiction.
Suppose the two graphs are isomorphic. Then, because of the vertex symmetry of the graph (i.e.
every vertex in any one of the two graphs acts like all the other vertices in that graph) we may
as well assume that vertex a in the first graph corresponds to vertex 1 in the second graph. But
then the neighbours of a (i.e. the vertices adjacent to a) in the first graph will correspond to the
neighbours of 1 in the second graph.
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The two subgraphs induced by the neighbours of a and 1 are given by

h 8

b 7 2
and

f 3

e d 5

Since they are not isomorphic (the second graph has a 5-circuit while the first graph doesn’t have
a 5-circuit), the two original graphs cannot be isomorphic.
(c)

a b c 1 2

5 6

d e f
4 3

(5)

Solution
They are not isomorphic since the subdigraphs induced by the vertices with in-degree 2 and out-degree
one are not isomorphic:
c
1

and
5
d f
3

The first subdigraph is connected while the second one is disconnected.

3. If a graph G has n vertices, all of which but one have odd degree, how many vertices of odd degree
are there in G, the complement of G? (4)
Solution
If all but one of the n vertices of G is odd, it means G has n − 1 vertices of odd degree. By the
Corollary of Theorem 1 in Section 1.3 of Tucker, it follows that n − 1 has to be even and therefore n
is odd.
If a vertex has degree d in G, then that vertex has degree n − 1 − d in G. Since n − 1 is even, n − 1 − d
is odd exactly when d is odd. This happens for n − 1 of these vertices. So G has exactly n − 1 vertices
of odd degree.
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4. If every vertex in a graph G has degree ≥ d where d ≥ 2, then show that G must contain a circuit of
length at least d + 1.
Hint. Consider a longest path, say P , in G and look at the neighbours of an endvertex of P . (6)

Solution
We use a constructive proof, i.e. we explain how to construct such a circuit.
Let P = v1 v2 . . . vℓ be a longest path in G. First we show that all the neighbours of v1 lies on P .
Suppose there is a neighbour of v1 that does not lie on P , say w. Then wP is a path in G that is
longer than P contradicting our assumption that P is a longest path in G. Hence all the neighbours of
v1 lie on P . Now let w1 , w2 , . . . , wk be the neighbours of v1 where k ≥ d. We can assume that w1 = v2
and that wk = vj with j ≤ ℓ is the last the neighbour of v1 on P . But then v1 v2 . . . vj v1 is a circuit in
G that contains v1 and all its k ≥ d neighbours. Hence, G has a circuit of length at least d + 1.

5. (a) If a graph has 38 edges, what is the smallest number of vertices it can have? (3)
Solution
n

Let n be the number of vertices. The largest number of edges is when the graph is complete: 2 .
Thus
 
n 1
38 ≤ = n(n − 1)
2 2
i.e. 76 ≤ n(n − 1).

Make a table:
n 8 9 10 11
n(n − 1) 56 72 90 110
Thus we see that n ≥ 10. Before we can now say that n = 10, we have to make sure there is a
graph with 10 vertices and 38 edges. But this is easy: just remove any 7 edges from K10 (which
has 10


2 = 45 edges).
(b) If a connected planar graph with n vertices, all of degree 3, has 8 regions, determine n. (3)
Solution
If we let e denote the number of edges, then Euler’s formula gives

8 = e − n + 2.

The sum of the degrees is 3n, so we also have

3n = 2e
3n
i.e. e = .
2
Substitute back into the first equation:
3n
8 = −n+2
2
n+4
=
2
i.e. n = 12.
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Here is an example of such a graph.

(c) If G is a 10-vertex planar graph with e edges, determine all possible values of e. (3)
Solution
By the corollary on p. 36 (edition 5) or p. 38 (edition 6) of Tucker, if G is a connected graph
with e > 1, then e ≤ 3v − 6. Note that this is also true for disconnected planar graphs, since you
can add edges between the components to make the graph connected while it stays planar, and
then you can apply the corollary to obtain

e < number of edges in the new connected graph ≤ 3v − 6.

So we may apply the corollary, even though it is not given that G is connected:

e ≤ 3v − 6 = 3 × 10 − 6 = 24.

Next we show that there exists a planar graph with 10 vertices and 24 edges:

So the possible values for e is 0, 1, . . . , 24.

(d) How many vertices can a graph with 27 edges have if all vertices have the same degree? (4)
Solution
Let the number of vertices be n and the common degree d. Then the sum of the degrees is

nd = 2 × the number of edges = 2 × 27 = 54.

Thus n is a factor of 54. The factors of 54 are 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18, 27 and 54.

54
In each case we must have d = n.
So we have the following possibilities for n and d:
n 1 2 3 6 9 18 27 54
d 54 27 18 9 6 3 2 1
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However, note that d < n. Thus there are four possibilities remaining: n = 9 and d = 6, n = 18
and d = 3, n = 27 and d = 2, and finally n = 54 and d = 1. It is not difficult to construct a
graph for each possibility. If n = 27 and d = 2, one example is a circuit on 27 vertices, i.e. a C27 .
If n = 54 and d = 1, the graph is the union of 27 K2 ’s. An example of a graph with n = 18 and
d = 3 is given by the graph below.

n = 18 and d = 3

Finally, we note that a graph with n = 9 and d = 6 is the complement of a graph with n = 9 and
d = 2. The reason for this is as follows. If each vertex of G has degree d, then in G, the complement
of G, each vertex has degree n − 1 − d. So in this case a graph with n = 9 and d = 6 is just the
complement of a C9 , that is, a circuit on 9 vertices.

6. Find a Hamilton path in the graph below and prove that no Hamilton circuit exists.
a

c d
j

e f

g h i

(6)

Solution
A Hamilton path is abceghjdf i.
In order to show that no Hamilton circuit exists, let’s first try to use Grinberg’s Theorem which states
that if a planar graph G has a Hamilton circuit, then the numbers ri and ri′ satisfy the equation
X
(i − 2)(ri − ri′ ) = 0. (1)
i

This does not mean that if G is a planar graph for which the numbers ri and ri′ satisfy the above
equation, then G has a Hamilton circuit.
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This fact is illustrated by this example. If we use Grinberg’s Theorem and find values for ri and ri′
that satisfy equation (1), then G does not necessarily have a Hamilton circuit. In fact, we can use the
three rules of Tucker to show that no Hamilton circuit exists.
First, from Grinberg’s Theorem we note that there are 13 regions; 12 bounded by 3 edges and one
region, the outside, bounded by 6 edges. We therefore have

r3 + r3′ = 12, r6 + r6′ = 1 and the other ri + ri′ = 0.

The equation of Grinberg is then

(r3 − r3′ ) + 4(r6 − r6′ ) = 0

since the other ri and ri′ must be 0.

Now since ri and ri′ are nonnegative integers it follows from r6 + r6′ = 1 that either r6 = 1 and r6′ = 0
or r6 = 0 and r6′ = 1. The first case gives r3 = 4 and r3′ = 8 and the second gives r3 = 8 and r3′ = 4.
We have therefore found values for ri and ri′ that satisfy equation (1).
Grinberg’s theorem in this example therefore turns out to be inconclusive - we still don’t know whether
or not the graph contains a Hamilton circuit.
But if we use the three rules of Tucker we can prove that no Hamilton circuit exists. Suppose G has
a Hamilton circuit. H.
Consider vertex j. Due to the symmetry of the graph we can without loss of generality assume that
cj and jh have to be on H. Since vertex g has to be on H, at least one of the edges cg and hg have
to be used. Due to the symmetry of the graph we only consider the case where cg are used. Then we
have to delete all the remaining edges incident with vertex c (rule 3), including the edge ce. But then
we have to use ge and eh (rule 1). Now we have a proper subcircuit gehjcg violating rule 2. Hence the
graph does not have a Hamilton circuit even though it satisfied equation (1) in Grinberg’s theorem.

7. Use the circle-chord method to determine whether the following graph is planar. If it is, give a planar
drawing. It if is not, find a K3,3 - or K5 -configuration. (8)
1 2

8 3

7 4

6 5

Solution
By inside-outside symmetry we choose the edge 15 to be drawn inside. Then the edge 48 must be
drawn outside. Then the edge 26 cannot be drawn.
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1 2

8 3

7 4

6 5

The following is a K3,3 -configuration of the graph.

1 4 6

7
3

2 5 8

8. Determine the chromatic number of each of the following graphs. Give a minimal colouring and a
proof that a smaller number of colours cannot be used.

(a) (5)

a b c d

e f g h

Solution
Since the graph contains triangles, χ(G) ≥ 3. The following is a 3-colouring of the graph
blue green red
a, c, g d, e b, f, h
This proves that χ(G) ≤ 3 and hence χ(G) = 3.
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(b) (5)

b c d e

g h i j

Solution
Since there are triangles χ(G) ≥ 3. We now analyze a 3-colouring of G.
We start with the neighbours of the vertex k, i.e. the vertices g, h, i and j. Since we are analyzing
a 3-colouring of G, we have to use at most 2 colours to colour the neighbours of k, since we need
one more colour for the vertex k. Say we colour g blue. Then h and j have to be coloured in
another colour, say green. Then i has to be coloured blue. Now f is adjacent to a green and a
blue vertex and we need another colour, say red, to colour f .
Vertex c is now forced to be blue and d is forced to be green. Since e is adjacent to g and j, it has
to be coloured red. Now a is adjacent to a blue, green and red vertex and cannot be coloured.
Our analysis of a 3-colouring has shown that χ(G) ≥ 4. A 4-colouring of G is easy to find, for
example
blue green red yellow
c, g, i b, d, h, j e, f, k a
This proves that χ(G) ≤ 4 and hence χ(G) = 4.

9. Show that all trees are bipartite. (3)

Solution
By theorem 2 in Section 1.3 of Tucker, a graph is bipartite if and only if every circuit has even length.
Since a tree does not have any circuits, all its circuits have even length! Therefore all trees are
bipartite.

10. Show that an unrooted tree with at least three vertices of degree 1 must always have a vertex of degree
at least 3. (5)
Solution
One possible proof is the following.
Let a, b and c be three vertices of degree 1. Since a tree is connected, there is a path P1 between a
and c, and a path P2 between b and c. Obviously, P1 and P2 have the vertex c in common. If they
have no other vertices in common, then c is forced to have degree larger than 1, which contradicts our
assumption that c is of degree 1:
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a
P1
c

b
P2

Therefore, P1 and P2 must have at least one more vertex in common. Let d be the first vertex of P2
as we go from a to c which is also on P1 :

a d
P1
c

b P2

Then d will have degree ≥ 3.

11. Let T be a tree (not rooted) on 14 vertices with each vertex of degree either 1 or 4.

(a) How many vertices of T has degree 4? (3)

Solution
Consider any tree T with 14 vertices, each of degree 1 or 4. Let t be the number of vertices of
degree 4. Then the sum of the degrees equal

4t + 1 × (14 − t) = 3t + 14.

The number of edges of T is 14 − 1 = 13, and it follows by the edge counting theorem that the
sum of the degrees also equal 2 × 13 = 26, i.e.

3t + 14 = 26,

so t = 4. So we have that there are 4 vertices of degree 4, and 10 of degree 1.

(b) If we remove all the vertices of degree 1, will the graph that remains still be a tree? Explain. (2)
Solution
If we remove all the vertices of degree 1 and their incident edges, the remaining graph will still
be connected. So what is left is still a tree, but now with 4 vertices.
(c) List all such non-isomorphic trees (not rooted) on 14 vertices with each vertex of degree either 1
or 4 and explain why the trees on your list are non-isomorphic. (3)
Solution
There are two:

and
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Consider the subgraphs of the above two graphs formed by the vertices of degree 4 are given by
and

respectively. Since these subgraphs are clearly not isomorphic, the original ones are also not
isomorphic.
(d) Use (a) and (b) above to prove that your list contains all such trees. (3)
Solution
From (b) we know that if we remove all the vertices of degree 1 and their incident edges, we are
still left with a tree. From (a) we know that this tree has 4 vertices. It is easy to list all trees
with 4 vertices:
and

In each case there is only one way of putting back the vertices of degree 1:

and

So there are only these two, and the list in (c) is complete.

12. Determine the number of edges of

(a) a binary tree on 55 vertices. (2)

Solution
A binary tree on 55 vertices has 54 edges by Theorem 2 of Chapter 3.
(b) a ternary tree on 55 vertices. (2)

Solution
Again the answer is 54, for the same reason.

13. For each of the following, determine if it exists. If it does, give an example. If it doesn’t give a reason
why.

(a) A 5-ary tree with 20 leaves. (2)

Solution
In the notation of Section 3.1 of Tucker we have
ℓ−1 20 − 1 19
i= = = ,
m−1 5−1 4
which is not an integer. Therefore, such a tree does not exist.
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(b) A 5-ary tree with 49 leaves. (2)

Solution
Now we have
ℓ−1 49 − 1 48
i= = = = 12 internal leaves.
m−1 5−1 4
We still don’t know whether it exists; we have to construct one. First consider the 5-ary rooted
tree with 5 vertices on level 1 and 5 × 5 = 25 vertices on level two. Now add 5 leaves to any 6 of
the vertices on level two. This 5-ary tree now has 25 − 6 = 19 leaves on level 2 and 5 × 6 = 30
leaves on level 3, in total 19 + 30 = 49 leaves.

14. In the graph below, determine

a c

d e f

g i

(a) a depth-first spanning tree with e as root. (4)

Solution
If we do everything in alphabetical order we get the following tree:
e
b
a
c

f
i
g
d h

(b) a breadth-first spanning tree with e as root. (4)

Solution
Again, if we do everything in alphabetical order we get the following tree:
e

b h

a c g i
d f
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15. Find a minimal spanning tree of the weighted graph below using
a 3 e 4 i 4 m

2 4 2 3
b 3 f 1 j 5 n

5 6 7 6
c 5 g 2 k 2 o

7 5 3 4
d 2 h 4 l 1 p

(a) Kruskal’s algorithm. (4)

(b) Prim’s algorithm. (4)
In each spanning tree show the order in which the edges have been selected by numbering them
accordingly (i.e. do not give the weights).
Solution
(a) Kruskal’s algorithm: We start with an empty T , and at each step add to T a shortest edge that
does not form a circuit with edges already in T . (Note that there can be more than one such
shortest edge. You can choose any one of them. So it is possible to obtain different minimal
spanning trees depending on your choice, but they will all have the same total weight.)
In the spanning tree below we show the order in which the edges have been selected (not the
weights).
a 8 e i 12 m

3 4 10
b 9 f 1 j n

14
c 15 g 5 k 6 o

11
d 7 h 13 l 2 p

The total cost is 42.

(b) Prim’s algorithm: We start with T consisting of any shortest edge, and at each step, add to T a
shortest edge between T and a vertex not in T . (Again there is more than one choice. Choose
anyone. )
In the spanning tree below we show the order in which the edges have been selected (not the
weights).
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a 10 e i 14 m

9 13 15
b 11 f 12 j n

8
c 7 g 4 k 3 o

2
d 6 h 5 l 1 p

The total cost is 42.