CH-2 Second Law of Thermodynamics

 The thermodynamics processes involving closed and open systems must satisfy the first law
 However, satisfying the first law alone does not ensure that the process will actually take place.
 First law does not specify the conditions under which conversion of heat into work is possible,
neither the direction in which heat transfer can take place.
 E.g.
 The hot coffee getting even hotter in a cooler room as a result of heat transfer from the room air
 Transferring some heat to the wires does not cause an equivalent amount of electric energy
 Raising the mass by transferring heat from the fluid to the paddle wheel will not cause it to rotate.

Transferring heat to coffee cup Transferring heat to a wire Transferring heat to a paddle wheel
 The inadequacy of the first law to identify whether a process can take place is resolved by
introducing another general principle, the second law of thermodynamics.
 According to second law, processes can occur only in a certain direction and that energy has both
quality as well as quantity.
 Second law of thermodynamics is based on experimental evidence only
 Process cannot take place unless it satisfies both first as well as second law of thermodynamics.
 The second law of thermodynamics used to determine the theoretical limits for the performance of
commonly used engineering systems
 Thermal Energy (heat) Reservoirs: A hypothetical body that has a relatively large thermal energy capacity and
it can supply or absorb finite amounts of heat without undergoing any perceptible change in temperature.
 e.g. Oceans, Lakes, Rivers and Atmospheric air
 Source: A reservoir that supplies energy in the form of heat
 Sink: A reservoir that absorbs energy in the form of heat

Source Sink
 Heat Engines:
 A heat engine cycle is a thermodynamic cycle in which there is a net heat transfer to the system and
a net work transfer from the system
 The system which executes a heat engine cycle is called a heat engine
 A device used to converting heat to work (work-producing device)
 Common characteristics of Heat Engines:
o receive heat from a high-temperature source (solar energy, nuclear reactor, etc.).
o convert part of this heat to work (usually in the form of a rotating shaft)
o reject the remaining waste heat to a low-temperature sink (atmosphere, rivers etc.)
o operate on a cycle.
Heat Engines
 Working fluid: a fluid to and from which heat is transferred while undergoing a cycle
 Net work output: Difference between the total work output of the plant and the total work input
Wnet  Wout  Win
 For a closed system: Wnet  Qin  Qout
 Thermal Efficiency: The fraction of the heat input that is converted to net work output
ηth  Wnet Qin  ηth  1   Qout Qin 
 The Second Law of Thermodynamics :Kelvin–Planck Statement :
 It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir and
produce a net amount of work.
 No heat engine can have a thermal efficiency of 100 percent
 The heat engine will produce net work in a complete cycle by exchanging heat with only one
reservoir, thus violating the Kelvin-Planck statement. Such a heat engine is called a perpetual
motion machine of the second kind,PMM2.
Source T1 >T2 Source T1>T2
Q1 Q1

Wnet Wnet =Q1

Q2
Q2=0
Sink T2
Kelvin–Planck Statement: A PMM2
Heat Engines
 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps (Reversed Heat Engines)
 A refrigerator is a device which, operating in a cycle, maintains a body at a temperature lower than
the temperature of the surroundings.
 A heat pump is a device which, operating in a cycle, maintains a body, at a temperature higher than
the temperature of the surroundings.
 Working fluid: Refrigerant
 Net output:
 Refrigerator- Heat transfer from cold reservoir
 Heat pump- Heat transfer to hot reservoir
 Performance Parameter: Coefficient of Performance
Desired output
 COP  
Required input
QL QL
 COP  R  =
Wnet, in QH  QL
QH QH
 COP  HP  =
Wnet, in QH  QL
Refrigerator Heat Pump
 The Second Law of Thermodynamics :Clausius Statement:
 It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no effect other than the
transfer of heat from a lower-temperature body to a higher-temperature body.
 Heat cannot flow of itself from a body at a lower temperature to a body at a higher temperature.
 for a power plant to operate, the working fluid must exchange heat with the environment as well as
the furnace.
Source T1 >T2 Source T1 >T2
Q1 Q1

Wnet Wnet =0

Q2 Q2

Sink T2 Sink T2

Reverse Heat Engines

 Equivalence of the Two Statements:
 Any device that violates the Kelvin–Planck statement
also violates the Clausius statement, and vice versa.
 Consider the heat engine–refrigerator combination.
 The heat engine is assumed to have, in violation of the
Kelvin–Planck statement, ηth=100 %
 Therefore the heat QH converts to work Wnet
 This work is now supplied to a refrigerator
 Refrigerator removes heat in the amount of QL from
the low-temperature reservoir and rejects heat in the  The transfers of heat QL from a cooler
amount of QL + QH to the high-temperature reservoir body to a warmer one without
 the high temperature reservoir receives a net amount requiring any input from outside.
of heat QL  clearly a violation of the Clausius
Combination of these two devices viewed as a refrigerator, statement
 Equivalence of the Two Statements:
 Any device that violates the Kelvin–Planck statement
also violates the Clausius statement, and vice versa.
 Consider the heat engine–refrigerator combination.
 The heat engine is assumed to have, in violation of the
Kelvin–Planck statement, ηth=100 %
 Therefore the heat QH converts to work Wnet
 This work is now supplied to a refrigerator
 Refrigerator removes heat in the amount of QL from
the low-temperature reservoir and rejects heat in the  The transfers of heat QL from a cooler
amount of QL + QH to the high-temperature reservoir body to a warmer one without
 the high temperature reservoir receives a net amount requiring any input from outside.
of heat QL  clearly a violation of the Clausius
Combination of these two devices viewed as a refrigerator, statement
 Reversible and Irreversible Processes:
 Reversible or ideal process: both the system and the surroundings may be restored to their initial states,
without producing any changes in the rest of the universe.
 i.e. both the system and the surroundings are returned to their initial states at the end of the reverse process.
This is possible only if the net heat and net work exchange between the system and the surroundings is zero for
the combined (original and reverse) process.
 Reversible process is carried out infinitely slowly with an infinitesimal gradient, so that every state passed
through by the system is an equilibrium state.
 Reversible processes actually do not occur in nature. It is an idealized hypothetical process approached to an
asymptote to reality
 Irreversible processes: Processes that are not reversible
 Causes of Irreversibility:
1. Irreversibility due to Lack of Equilibrium: The lack of equilibrium (mechanical, thermal or chemical)
between the system and its surroundings, or between two systems, or two parts of the same system
2. Irreversibility due to Dissipative Effects: transformation of work into molecular internal energy
 Carnot Cycle:
 An ideal hypothetical cycle in which all the processes constituting the cycle are reversible.
 First proposed in 1824 by French engineer Sadi Carnot.
 The Carnot cycle is composed of four reversible processes- two isothermal and two adiabatic.
 Isothermal Expansion, Adiabatic Expansion, Isothermal Compression, Adiabatic Compression
 It can be executed either in a closed or a steady- flow system.

P-V diagram Carnot cycle

Carnot cycle in a closed system
 Carnot Principle:
 The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the efficiency of a reversible one
operating between the same two reservoirs.
 Efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the same two reservoirs are the same.

 Reversed Carnot Cycle:

 All the processes that comprise Carnot cycle can be reversed,
in which case it becomes the Carnot refrigeration cycle
 The cycle remains exactly the same, except that the directions
of any heat and work interactions are reversed.
 QL is absorbed from the TL
 QH is rejected to a TH
 Wnet, in work input

Carnot Principles
 Absolute Thermodynamic Temperature Scale:
 A temperature scale that is independent of the properties of the
substances that are used to measure temperature is called a
thermodynamic temperature scale.
 The efficiency of a reversible engine is independent of the
working fluid employed and its properties.
 Thermal efficiency of reversible heat engines is a function of the
reservoir temperatures only
ηth, rev  f TL ,TH 
QH
 f TL ,TH 
QL
 Applying second Carnot principle to three engines separately,
Q1 Q2 Q
 f T1 ,T2  ,  f T2 ,T3  , 1  f T1 ,T3 
Q2 Q3 Q3
Q1 Q1 Q2
 
Q3 Q2 Q3
f T1 ,T3   f T1 ,T2   f T2 ,T3 
Heat engines arrangement
 Above equation reveals that the left-hand side is a function of T1 and T3,
and therefore the right-hand side must also be a function of T1 and T3 only,
and not T2 .
 The value of the product on the right-hand side of this equation is
independent of the value of T2
This condition will be satisfied only if:
Φ T1  Φ T2 
f T1 ,T2   ; and f T2 ,T3  
Φ T2  Φ T3 
Q1 Φ T1 
 
Q3 Φ T3 

 Several functions ϕ(T) satisfy this equation, and the choice is completely
arbitrary. Lord Kelvin first proposed taking ϕ(T) =T to define a
thermodynamic temperature scale as:
QL TL QL TL
  
QH TH QH TH

 Triple point of water was assigned the value 273.16 K T  C   T  K   273.15

o
 Efficiency Of The Reversible Heat Engine:
Q
ηth, rev  ηmax  1  L  f TL ,TH 
QH
T
 1 L
TH
 The COP of a refrigerator:
QL TL
 COP  R  
QH  QL TH  TL

 The COP of a heat pump:

QH TH
 COP  HP  
QH  QL TH  TL

When the heat rejected approaches zero, the temperature of heat rejection Heat Engines Operating in Series
also approaches zero as a limit. Thus it appears that a definite zero point
exist on the absolute temperature scale but this point cannot be reached
without a violation of the second law.
Third Law of Thermodynamics: It is impossible by any procedure, no matter how idealized, to reduce any system to
the absolute zero of temperature in a finite number of operations
 Examples
Ex-1 A cyclic heat engine operates between a source temperature of 800°C and a sink temperature of
30°C. What is the least rate of heat rejection per kW net output of the engine?
Solution: Source TH =1073 K
TL 303
ηth, rev  1   1  QS QH
TH 1073
Wnet Wnet
ηth, rev  
QH 1 kW
Wnet  QH  QL  QL  QH  Wnet 
QR QL
Ex-2 : An engine has a heat input of 500 kJ at 437oC. It rejects 200 kJ at 82oC.
Sink TL=303K
The engine develops 250 kJ of work. Check whether such an engine is possible.
Solution:
TL 82  273.15
ηth, rev  1   1 
TH 437  273.15
QR 
Wnet
ηHE  
QH
Ex-3 A domestic food freezer maintains a temperature of -15°C. The ambient air temperature is 30°C. If heat leaks
into the freezer at the continuous rate of 1.75 kJ/s what is the least power necessary to pump this heat out
continuously? Source TH =303 K
Solution: QH
For minimum power requirement,
QH TH 303 Wnet =? kW
  
QL TL 258
QH 
Wnet  QH  QL 
1.75 kJ/s QL
Ex-4 Carnot engine absorbs 200 J of heat from a reservoir at the temperature of the
normal boiling point of water and rejects heat to a reservoir at the temperature of the Sink TL=258K

triple point of water. Find the heat rejected, the work done by the engine and the
thermal efficiency.
Solution:
QH TH QS TH
    QR 
QL TL QR TL
Wnet
Wnet  QS  QR   ηHE  
QH
Ex-5 A reversible heat engine in a satellite operates between a hot reservoir at T1 and a radiating panel at T2.
Radiation from the panel is proportional to its area and to T24. For a given work output and value of T1 show that
the area of the panel will be minimum when T2/ T1 = 0.75.
Determine the minimum area of the panel for an output of 1 kW if the constant of proportionality is 5.67x10-8W/
m2 K4 and T1 is 1000 K.
Solution:
The heat rejected to the panel at T2 T1
Q2  AT24
Q1
 Q2  KAT 2
4

W T1  T2
ηHE   W
Q1 T1
HE
W Q1 Q2 KAT24
   
T1  T2 T1 T2 T2
W
A Q2=KAT24
KT23 T1  T2 
For a given W and T1 , A will be minimum when T2
dA
0
dT2
Amin =
Ex-6 A reversible heat engine operates between two reservoirs at temperatures of 600oC and 40oC. The engine
drives a reversible refrigerator which operates between reservoirs at temperatures of 40oC and -20oC. The heat
transfer to the heat engine is 2000 kJ and the net work output of the combined engine refrigerator plant is 360 kJ.
(a) Evaluate the heat transfer to the refrigerant and the net heat transfer to the reservoir at 40oC.
(b) Reconsider (a) given that the efficiency of the heat engine and the COP of the refrigerator are each 40% of
their maximum possible values.
T2 313
ηth, HE  1   1  ηHE  0.4ηmax T1 =873 K T3=253K
T1 873
W  0.4ηth, HE  Q1 = 2000 kJ Q4
ηth, HE  1  W1  kJ
Q1 Repeat all calculations for this case..
Q2  Q3  W1  Q2  kJ W1 W2
Wnet  W1  W2  W2  kJ HE R
T3 253
 COP  R   
T2  T3 313  253
Wnet =360 kJ
Q Q2 Q3 =Q4+W
 COP  R = 4  Q4  kJ
W2
Q3  Q4  W2  Q3  kJ T2=313K
QR 40 oC  Q2  Q3  kJ
 Two Reversible Adiabatic Paths Cannot Intersect Each Other
 Assume two reversible adiabatic paths AC and BC intersect each other at point C.
 Let a reversible isotherm AB be intersects the reversible adiabatic paths at A and B.
 The three reversible processes AB, BC, and CA together constitute a reversible cycle.
 The area A(ABCA) ) included represents the net work output in a cycle.
 However such a cycle is impossible, since it violates the Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law,
as the net work is being produced in a cycle by a heat engine by exchanging heat with a single
thermal reservoir in the process AB.
 Therefore, the assumption of the intersection of the reversible adiabatic
is wrong. p
Rev. isotherm
 Through one point, there can pass only one reversible adiabatic. A
B

C
Rev. adiabatic
v
 Replacement of a Reversible Process by Equivalent Processes:
 Let us consider a reversible process i-f as shown on p-V diagram.
 Let two reversible adiabatic processes i-a and b-f be drawn through i and f respectively.
 Then consider a reversible isotherm a-b is drawn in such a way that the area under i-a-b-f is equal
to the area under i-f.
 Applying the first law for Process i-f: Qi-f  U f  U i  Wi-f p
Rev. adiabatic
i
 Process i-a-b-f: Qiabf  U f  U i  Wiabf b
Since, Wi-f  Wiabf
a
Qi-f  Qiabf
 Qi-a  Qa-b  Qb-f Rev. isotherm f
Since, i-a and b-f are reversible adiabatic process therefore, v
Qi-a  Qb-f  0
 Qi-f  Qa-b
 Therefore, any reversible path may be substituted by two reversible adiabatic paths and a reversible
isotherm, such that the heat transferred during the isothermal process is the same as that
transferred during the original process.
 Clausius Theorem:
 Let a closed curve representing a reversible cycle on p-V diagram. p Rev. adiabatic
 Consider the closed cycle be divided into a large number of strips by Rev. Isotherm
means of reversible adiabatic paths. Tn-1
T3 δQ3
 Let each strip closed at the top and bottom by reversible isotherms. δQ1
a b Tn
 The original closed cycle is thus replaced by a zigzag closed path T1
c
consisting of alternate adiabatic and isothermal processes, such that
T4
T2 d δQ
the heat transferred during all the isothermal processes is equal to δQ4
2

the heat transferred in the original cycle i.e. the original cycle is
v
replaced by a large number of Carnot cycles.
δQ1 δQ δQ1 δQ2
For the elemental cycle abcd,  2   0
T1 T2 T1 T2
δQ3 δQ4
for the elemental cycle efgh :  0
T3 T4
Then for the whole original cycle, Clausius theorem:
δQ1 δQ2 δQ3 δQ4 δQ
The cyclic integral of δQ/T for a reversible
T1

T2

T3

T4
 0   T 0 cycle is equal to zero.
 ENTROPY -A Thermodynamic Property:
 Let a system be taken from an initial equilibrium state i to a final p
equilibrium state f by following the reversible path R1
 The system is brought back from f to i by following another reversible
i
path R2
R1
 Then the two paths R1 and R2 together constitute a reversible cycle.
δQ
From Clausius. theorem  T 0 R2
 f δQ   i δQ  f
       0

 i T  R1  f T  R2 S i is the entropy at the initial state i, and v
 f δQ   i δQ  S f is the entropy at the final state f, then:
       

f
δQ
 i T  R1  f T  R2 
i
T
 S f  Si

 f δQ   f δQ  δQ
 dS
Since R2 is a reversible path :    When the two equilibrium states are infinitesimally near :
 T   T  T
i  R1  i  R2
Since R1 and R2 represent any two reversible paths, ∫δQ/T independent of the reversible path
connecting i and f. Therefore, there exists a property of a system is called entropy (S)
 Temperature-Entropy Plot:
 The infinitesimal change in entropy dS due to reversible heat transfer δQ at temperature T is
δQ
f
For any reversible isothermal process
dS   Qrev   TdS f

Qrev  T  S f  S i 
T i
Qrev   TdS 
If δQ  0, i.e. the process is reversible and adiabatic then: i

dS  0
S  constant
A reversible adiabatic process is, therefore, an isentropic process

T T T
i f
i i

Qrev f

Qrev
f

S S S
Reversible Adiabatic Reversible Isothermal Reversible Process
 Carnot cycle T-S Plot: T
Q1
Q1  Q2
ηcarnot  T1
Q1
T1  S1  S 4   T2  S 2  S 3 
 WC
T1  S1  S 4  WE

T2
 1 T2
T1
Q2
S
 Clausius Inequality:
 The cyclic integral of δQ /T is always less than or equal to zero.
δQ δQ
Clausius Inequality: 
p
0 T=C
T=C
T B
 Proof: A
Let us consider a cycle ABCD.
Let AB be a general process, either reversible or irreversible
Other processes are reversible C

Let the cycle be divided into a number of carnot cycles C δQ2

v
 Q  Q2 δQ  δQ2 p δQ
ηcarnot  1 = T=C
Q1 δQ T=C
B
A
δQ2
 1
δQ
The efficiency of a general cycle will be equal to or less than
the efficiency of a reversible cycle C
 δQ2   δQ2  C δQ2
 1  
  1  
 δQ   δQ  rev
δQ δQ2 v
δQ2  δQ2  Any process AB, reversible or irreversible: 
  T T2
δQ  δQ  rev
δQ δQ2
  0
δQ  δQ  T T2
  
δQ2  δQ2  rev δQ
 δQ  T
 T 0
   δQ
δQ
 2  rev T2  T 0 cycle is reversible
δQ  T  δQ
  
δQ2  T2  rev
 T 0 cycle is irreversible

δQ
 T 0 cycle is impossible, it violates the second law
 Entropy Principle:
 For any infinitesimal process undergone by a system,
δQ  δQ   δQ  T δQ
         ds
δQ2  δQ2  rev δQ
 2  rev T2 T

δQ δQ
  dS or dS 
T T
 For an isolated system  dS iso  0
 For reversible process isolated system  dS iso  0
 For an irreversible process  dS  0
 Principle of increase of entropy (Entropy Principle):
“The entropy of an isolated system can never decrease”
• An isolated system can always be formed by including any system and its surroundings within a
single boundary  dSuniv  0
 dS sys  dS surr  0
 First and Second Laws Combined:
Second law :  δQ rev  TdS
First law, for a closed non-flow system: δQ  dU  pdV
 TdS  dU  pdV
Enthalpy of the system: H  U  pV
 dH  dU  pdV+ Vdp
 dH  TdS  Vdp
 TdS  dH  Vdp

 Equations from the first and second laws:

(a) δQ  dE  δW : holds for any process, reversible or irreversible, and for any system
(b) δQ  dU  δW : holds for any process undegone by a closed stationary system
(c) δQ  dU  pdV : closed system when only pdV-work is present i.e. reversible process
(d) δQ  TdS : reversible process
(e) TdS  dU  pdV : any process reversible or irreversible, undergone by a closed system
(f) TdS  dH  Vdp : the equation holds good for any process
Ex-1 Water flows through a turbine in which friction causes the water temperature to rise from 35°C to
37°C. If there is no heat transfer, how much does the entropy of the water change in passing through
the turbine? (Water is incompressible and the process can be taken to be at constant volume.)
Solution:
Given: T1=35+273=308 K ; T2=37+273=310 K ; Process: constant volume
Reversible process: δQ  TdS
Constant Volume Process: δQ  mcv dT
 TdS  m cv dT T
2
dT
 dS  mcv
T
2 2
dT
  dS
1
  mcv
1
T
1

T2
 S  mcv ln
T1 s2
s1
310
 S  1  4.187 ln
308
 S 
Ex-2 In a temperature range between 0oC and 100oC, a particular system is maintained at constant
volume. It has a heat capacity given by cv = A + 2BT , where A = 0.014 J/K and B = 4.2×10−4 J/K2. A heat
reservoir at 0oC and a reversible work source are available. What is the maximum amount of work that
can be transferred to the reversible work source as the system is cooled from 100oC to the temperature of
the reservoir.
Solution: T1 = 100oC
Given: T1=100+273=373 K ; T2=0+273=273 K ; Process: constant volume Qs
Reversible process: δQ  TdS
2
Constant Volume Process: δQ  cv dT  Qs   cv dT W
1 HE
2
 Q    A + 2BT  dT  Q  J
1

 Tds  cv dT  ds  cv
dT
 S sys  
2
 A + 2BT  dT Qr=Qs-W

T T
1 T2= 0oC
T2 Qr Qs  W
 S sys  A ln  2B T2  T1   , and S rev   
T1 Tres 273
 S sys  S rev  0  Wmax 
Ex-3 A reversible engine, as shown in Fig., during a cycle of operation draws 6 MJ from 450 K reservoir
and does 800 kJ work. Calculate the amount and direction of heat interaction with other reservoir.
Solution:
Given: T1=450 K ; T2=300 K ; T3=200 K ; Q1=6000 kJ ; W=800 kJ
According to Clausius inequality
Q 200 K 300 K 450 K
 T 0
Q Q2=?
For revesible processes:  T 0 Q3=? Q1=6MJ

Q1  Q2 Q3 
   0 HE
T1  T2 T3 
6000  Q2 Q 
   3 0
450  300 200  W=800 kJ
 W   Q
 W  Q1   Q2  Q3 
 800  6000   Q2  Q3 
 Q2  Q3 
Ex-4 A reversible engine working in a cycle takes 4800 kJ of heat per minute from a source at 800 K
and develops 20 kW power. The engine rejects heat to two reservoirs at 300 K and 360 K. Determine the
heat rejected to each sink.
Solution:
Given: T1=800 K ; T2=300 K ; T3=360 K ; Q1=4800 kJ/min ; W=20 kW 800 K
According to Clausius inequality
Q1=4800kJ/min
δQ
 T 0
δQ W=20 kW
For revesible processes:  0  HE
T
Q1  Q2 Q3  Q2=?
   0
Q3=?
T1  T2 T3 
 W   Q 300 K 360 K
 
W  Q1  Q2  Q3 
 Q2  Q3 
Ex-5 0.28 m3 of gas at a pressure of 10.5 bar and temperature of 538°C is expanded at a constant
pressure to a volume of 0.34 m3. Determine the change of entropy, assuming cv = 0.69 kJ/kg K and R =
287 J/kg K.
Solution:
Given: V1=0.28 m3 ; p1=10.5 bar ; T1=538°C=811 K ; V2=0.34 m3 ; Process: constant pressure p1=p2 ;
Ideal gas equation: p1V1  mRT1 T
pV 2
 m  1 1
RT1
Reversible process: δQ  TdS
Constant Pressure Process: δQ  mc p dT
1
 TdS  mc p dT
dT
 dS  mc p
T
2 2 s1 s2
dT
  dS
1
  mc p
1
T
c p  cv  R 

T2
 S  m c p ln
T1
 S 
Ex-6 0.34 m3 of a perfect gas at constant pressure of 2.8 bar is heated from 100°C to 300°C and it is
then cooled at constant volume to its initial temperature. Calculate the overall change of entropy. Given
that cp = 1.05 kJ/kg K and cv = 0.75 kJ/kg K.
Solution:
Given: T
2
Constant Pressure Process: δQ  mc p dT
Constant Volume Process: δQ  mcv dT
1
 S 
3

s1 s2 s3
Ex-7 A fluid undergoes a reversible adiabatic compression from 0.5 MPa, 0.2 m3 to 0.05 m3 according to
the law, pv1.3 = constant. Determine the change in enthalpy, internal energy and entropy, and the heat
transfer and work transfer during the process.
Solution:
Given: V1=0.2 m3 ; p1=0.5 MPa ; V2=0.05 m3 ; Process: pv1.3 = constant;
Combined first and Second Law: TdS  dH  Vdp T
2
Reversible adiabatic process: δQ  TdS  0
 0  dH  Vdp  dH  Vdp
2 2 2 2
C
  dH
1
  Vdp 
1
 dH
1

1
p 1 1.3
dp
1
 H 
 H  U 2  p2V2   U 1  p1V1 
 U  s1 s2
 S 
 Q1-2  U  W1-2
 W1-2  U
Ex-8 Air is flowing steadily in an insulated duct. The pressure and temperature measurements of the air
at two stations A and B are given below. Establish the direction of the flow of air in the duct. Assume
that for air, specific heat cp is constant at 1.005 kJ/kg K, h = cpT, and pv= 0.287T, where p, v, and T
are pressure (in kPa), volume (in m3/kg) and temperature (in K) respectively.
Station A Station B
Pressure 130 kPa 100 kPa
Temperature 50oC 13oC

Given: p1=130 kPa ; T1=50oC; p2=130 kPa ; T2=13oC;

Combined first and Second Law: Tds  dh  vdp
dh  vdp
B B
  ds
A

A
T


B B B
dh vdp
  ds
A

A
T
 A T
B B B
c p dT 0.287dp
  ds
A

A
T
 A p  S 
Assignment-4 Entropy
Q-1 A piston cylinder machine contains 0.05 m3 of nitrogen at 1 bar and 300 K. Determine the change
in entropy and workdone during isothermal reversible compression of the gas during which pressure
rises to 4 bar.
Q-2 A hypothetical device is supplied with 2 kg/s of air at 4 bar, 300 K. Two separate streams of air leave
the device, as shown in figure below. Each stream is at an ambient pressure of 1 bar, and the mass flow
rate is the same for both streams. One of the exit streams is said to be at 330 K while the other is at 270
K. The ambient temperature is at 300 K. Determine whether such a device is possible

5m  7m
Q-3 A room is maintained at 27°C while the surroundings are at 2°C. The temperatures of the inner and
outer surfaces of the wall (k = 0.71 W/mK) are measured to be 21°C and 6°C, respectively. Heat flows
steadily through the wall 5m  7m in cross-section and 0.32 m in thickness. Determine (a) the rate of
heat transfer through the wall, (b) the rate of entropy generation in the wall, and (c) the rate of total
entropy generation with this heat transfer process.
Solution:
dT
Conduction Heat transfer : Q  kA
dx Consider the heat transfer through the wall as the system,
 21  6   dS 
 Q   0.71  5  7     1164.844 W  dt   S transfer through wall  Stotal generation
 0.32    wall
Q
Consider the wall as the system, 0    Si
T
 dS 
 dt   S transfer at wall  S generation within wall  Q1
Si    
Q2 
 
 1164.844 1164.844 
  wall   300  275   0.353
 room
T T surr   
Q
0    Si
T
 Q1 Q2   1164.844 1164.844 
Si            0.213
 T1 T2   294 279 