Unesco-Eolss Sample Chapters: Soils and Soil Sciences

LAND USE, LAND COVER AND SOIL SCIENCES – Vol.
VI – Soils and Soil Sciences - Willy Verheye
SOILS AND SOIL SCIENCES

Willy Verheye
National Science Foundation, Flanders/Belgium, and Geography Department,
University of Gent, Belgium
Keywords: Bulk density, cation exchange capacity, color, mapping unit, organic
material, permeability, pH, regolith, soil profile, soil survey, structure, texture, water
retention, weathering
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Soils and Soil Science
3. Soil Formation and Soil Forming Processes
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4. The Soil Profile
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5. Soil Composition and Soil Properties
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6. Soil Survey and Classification
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Glossary
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Bibliography
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Biographical Sketch
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Summary
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Soil science is a relatively new discipline which has mainly developed since the 1880s.
It uses terms, methods and processes borrowed from other basic disciplines like
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climatology, geology, chemistry, physics and biology, but with a direct application to
soils. At present, it is difficult to speak about one single science but as soil sciences, as
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they cover several fields including: pedology (or pedogenesis), soil survey (or
mapping), classification and applied soil sciences like soil fertility, soil conservation,
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land evaluation or soil and land management.

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In this chapter an overview is given of the concepts of modern soil sciences. The
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process of weathering and gradual evolution of a regolith towards a mature soil profile
is described. Soil composition and main soil properties, as well as their inter-relations
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with other characteristics and impact on land use are discussed. Finally, a summary is
given of the basic principles of soil survey and soil classification. As an overhead
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chapter on the topic of soil sciences in this Encyclopedia, this article provides a
synthetic overview, with direct references to the more detailed information included in
the 17 chapters which make up this topic.
1. Introduction
The term “soil”, derived from L. solum, has many definitions. Geologists and road
engineers consider the soil primarily as an inert unconsolidated weathering product of
the underlying rock, a nuisance that must be quarried and removed before reaching the
material of their interest, i.e. the basement for construction. Alternatively, soil (or dirt)
can also be used for filling excavations or providing foundations. For many other users,
©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

LAND USE, LAND COVER AND SOIL SCIENCES – Vol. VI – Soils and Soil Sciences - Willy Verheye
however, including farmers and earth science specialists, the soil is primarily a medium
for plant growth or crop production and water storage, and a major source of living.
Hence, these users and farmers in particular, pay automatically more attention to the
inherent characteristics of soils and their management, because to them soil is more than
useful, it is indispensable.
Throughout history farmers have learned, through trial and error, to observe differences
in soils and to improve, wherever possible, their properties. Long before our era the
Greeks were aware of the beneficial effects of applying manure or using ash or sulfur as
soil amendments. Since the Roman Empire traditional land use practices have been
passed from generation to generation, but always in a conception that soil is a rather
inert material to which fertilizers and water has to be added for producing crops. This
concept dominated people’s minds until as recent as the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries, and it is only since von Liebig in 1840 discovered the role of
nutrients in crop production and Dokouchaiev in 1880 made the link between soil
properties and bioclimatic zones that the soil is considered a dynamic body with
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variable properties and potential depending on variations in climate, vegetation and
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parent material. In the same line Jenny in 1941 defined the 5 soil forming factors which,
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still today, guide pedogenetic thinking and research (see: A Brief History of Soil
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Science).
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In the present-day concept the soil is considered a product of evolution and changes
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over time, with an own morphology and properties. The morphology of each soil, as
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expressed by a vertical section of different layers or horizons, is a direct reflection of the
effects of the five genetic factors responsible for its development. This dynamic and
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evolutionary nature is embodied in the universal definition of soil as:

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a natural body, located at the interface between the atmosphere, lithosphere and
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biosphere, consisting of layers of unconsolidated mineral and/or organic constituents of

variable thickness which have been subjected to and influenced by genetic and
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environmental factors of: parent material, climate (including moisture and temperature
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effects), macro- and microorganisms, and topography, all acting over a period of time
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and producing a product-soil that differs from the material from which it is derived in
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many physical, chemical, and biological properties and characteristics.

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The upper limit of the soil is air or shallow water. Its lower limit coincides with the
lower limit of biologic activity, as reflected by the rooting depth of native perennial
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plants. This active soil section in between corresponds with what is commonly defined
as the solum.
As soils differ in their properties both in the vertical and horizontal sense, their study
and characterization should involve both the vertical succession of overlying horizons
and spatial variations. The first aspect requires the observation and study of a soil
profile pit, approximately 1m x 1m x 1m in size and being considered representative for
the soil around. This small basic entity, from which one can observe variations in
properties and extract samples for analytical investigations, is called a pedon. It is the
smallest volume that can be called a soil, but large enough to exhibit a full set of
horizons.

The combination of various pedons with minor differences within a larger landform is
called a polypedon. Such minor differences may relate to the nature and arrangement of
horizons, or to the degree of expression of one or more horizons below the depth of
normal plowing. In fact, a polypedon corresponds usually with what is often described
as a soil series. Soils of the same series have a similar horizon sequence and nearly
identical properties of the horizons.
2. Soils and Soil Science
Soil science is the study concerned with observing and describing, collecting,
establishing and systematizing facts, principles and methods in order to acquire an in-
depth knowledge of the soils, their properties and potential for production and
conservation. Soil science uses an integrated multidisciplinary approach in the sense
that it borrows concepts, techniques and processes from other sciences, but with a focus
on soils. Soil science relies on 7 major supporting sciences or sub-disciplines (Figure 1):
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Climatology which affects the pedo-climate in terms of moisture and
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temperature conditions in the solum, and thus influences physical and chemical
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soil processes and plant and animal life;
Geology which determines the nature and constitution (mineralogy) of the
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parent material from which the soil profile develops;
Geomorphology (landform evolution) and hydrology which have a major impact
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on runoff, erosion and sedimentation processes, and differential warming up of

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soils;
Physics, the basic laws of which determine the nature, intensity and
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interrelationships between the solid, liquid and gaseous soil components;

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Chemistry, concerned with the chemical constitution, chemical properties and

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chemical reactions in the soil, and their direct effect on soil fertility and nutrient
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supply to plants; and

Soil (micro) biology dealing with the soil fauna, the vegetation above and below
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the soil surface, as well as the microscopic soil population, and their role in
various transformations and the liberation of nutrients.
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Soil science as a discipline is relatively young compared to other sciences like

mathematics or astronomy, the origin of which dates back for more than 2 000 years.
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The first who started to systematically study soils was the Russian geographer
Dokouchaiev in the late 19th century, but his work became only known at the
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international floor after it had been published in German and disseminated by Marbut
and Jenny in the USA (see: A Brief History of Soil Science).
The disastrous Dust Bowl in the Mid West in the 1930s gave an additional impetus to
the study of soils and was the start of the Soil Conservation Service in the US.
Elsewhere in the world the growing interest in soils work received a major push after
World War II when in a number of European countries a national soil survey institute
was established (in 1947 in Belgium, 1952 in France, 1966 in The Netherlands, etc.)
while in the tropics the rapid development and increased demand of plantation crops
asked for an better knowledge and understanding of soil-plant relations in these areas.

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Figure 1: Supporting basic sciences and current sub-disciplines of soil science
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At present, there are four major disciplines within soil science focusing on different
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applications and users (Figure 1):

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Pedology, focusing on the formation (pedogenesis) and development of soils as

recognized in the characteristics of the soil profile. It deals with fundamental and
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academic research aspects of soils, and includes the description and analytical
characterization of the soil;
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Soil survey which describes the soil properties (making use of field and
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laboratory observations as referred to above) and delineates the geographical

distribution of the different soils;
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Soil classification which organizes the soils and their particular properties on the
basis of a hierarchical system of pre-defined criteria and classes. Though these
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criteria may vary as a function of the objectives, most international classification

systems have a pedogenetic background; and
Applied soil sciences which interpret the soil properties in function of their
ranking and potential for a specific objective. This includes applications (1) for
housing and construction, focusing mainly on physical and much less on
chemical properties; (2) for agronomic and crop production objectives, including
soil fertility, suitability for drainage and irrigation, etc.; (3) for soil conservation
and the protection of soils against physical loss by erosion or by chemical
deterioration; and (4) land evaluation which assesses the production and use
potential of the soil, including the development and monitoring of land use
practices. The latter domain has since the 1980s gradually become a key issue

for land resource management and land use planning.
The various aspects of soil sciences described above are discussed at large in different
separate chapters in this section: Soil Physics, Soil Chemistry and Soil Fertility, Soil
Biology and Microbiology, Soil Biochemistry, Soil Mineralogy.
3. Soil Formation and Soil Forming Processes
Soil formation takes place in two consecutives stages, starting with a simple weathering
(disintegration and decomposition) of rocks and minerals giving rise to an
unconsolidated regolith (from Gr. rhegos, covering, and lithos, stone), and followed by
a soil profile development, whereby the regolith material is gradually modified and a
horizon sequence develops under the combined action of climate, vegetation,
topography and time.
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3.1. Weathering and Regolith Formation
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Weathering is basically a combination of destruction and synthesis. It breaks up rocks,
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modifies or destroys their physical and chemical characteristics, and carries away the
soluble products and some of the solids. These changes are accompanied by a
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continuous decrease in particle size and by the release of soluble constituents, which are
subject to loss in drainage waters or recombination into new (secondary) minerals.
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There are three major forms of weathering: physical, chemical and biological
weathering. Physical or mechanical weathering takes places under conditions where
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water is no active agent to enhance chemical reactions. It is particularly active in deserts

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or in polar areas where temperature changes create internal pressures in the rock and
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produce cracks (see: Dry Lands and Desertification, and Soils of Arid and Semi-Arid
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Areas). Chemical weathering is mainly related to the concerted action of water, oxygen
and organic chemicals released by higher plants and microorganisms. While physical
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weathering results generally in a broad breakdown of soil and rock components,

chemical weathering affects much more intensively the composition of soil material.
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The three major weathering processes related to water are hydrolysis (the dissociation
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from H + and OH − ions from H 2 O ), hydration (addition of a water molecule to the

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mineral) and dissolution (the solubility of a compound and its elimination from the
environment).
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Biological weathering processes are activated by living agents (animals, higher plants,
microorganisms) and are mainly responsible for both the decomposition and
disintegration of rocks and minerals. The processes related to these weathering forms
have been discussed at large in: Dry Lands and Desertification.
3.2. Soil Profile Formation and Horizon Development
Soil profile development is basically a re-arrangement of soil particles into soil

horizons, each of them with specific properties. Soil formation can proceed rather fast in
aggressive humid tropical climates, but is much slower in cold or dry climates; when the
surface layers are eroded, the (active) root zone comes nearer to the regolith and soils

are rejuvenated. Conditions that hasten the rate of soil development are: (1) a warm,
humid climate, (2) forest vegetation, (3) permeable unconsolidated material low in lime
content, and (4) flat or lowland topography with good drainage. Factors that tend to
retard development are: (a) a cold or dry climate, (b) grass vegetation, (c) the presence
of impermeable consolidated material high in lime, and (d) a steeply sloping
topography.
Weathering and soil formation can be studied by changes of color, structure and texture
in the field, by laboratory analyses and by microscopic observations and techniques
(see: Soil Mineralogy, and Soil Microscopy and Micromorphology). The processes
involved in soil profile formation and horizon development are: (a) gains or additions of
water, organic and mineral material, (b) losses of such material from the soil, (c)
transformation of mineral substances within the soil, and (d) translocation or movement
of soil material from one point to another, involving movement in solution (leaching) or
in suspension (eluviation) of clay, organic matter or hydrous oxides. Conditions that
retard or offset horizon differentiation are due to: (a) mixing of material by burrowing
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animals, (b) removal of surface soil by water or wind, (c) creep, and (d) accretion of
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sediments in floodplains.
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There are 9 fundamental processes that affect profile differentiation:
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Humification - The process of transformation, i.e. decomposition of raw organic

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material into humus under the influence of soil microorganisms. During this process,
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the soluble organic substances regroup themselves into large molecules and become
poorly soluble. In the strict sense, the term focuses in particular on the phase which
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follows the decomposition of the organic debris and which consists mainly of processes
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of synthesis and building up of new molecules through microbial or physicochemical

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pathways.
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Eluviation and illuviation - The process of removal of soil constituents in suspension or

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in solution by percolating water from the upper to the lower layers. It encompasses
mobilization and translocation of mobile constituents (mainly clay) resulting in a
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textural differentiation, or leaching of soluble elements like salts.

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Calcification and decalcification- The movement of soluble calcium carbonate in the

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soil, involving their leaching, movement, precipitation and accumulation in various soil
layers. The general reaction which controls the movement of carbonate is:
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CaCO3 + H 2 O + CO 2 → Ca(HCO3 ) 2
If CO 2 and H 2 O are present, i.e. under an active biological activity, the reaction
proceeds in the right direction, with the formation of soluble bicarbonate. When CO 2
and water are not active, i.e. in the dry season when the biological activity is largely
reduced, the reaction proceeds to the left and insoluble calcium carbonate precipitates.
This is, for example, what happens in Mediterranean soils which develop under an
alternate humid winter and dry summer period (see: Mediterranean Soils).

Podzolization - The process of extreme leaching of bases in an acid environment,

relatively poor in weatherable minerals, characteristic of regions with a (very) humid
boreal or tropical climate. It involves the eluviation of acid and complex-forming humus
that becomes mobile and gets leached from the upper part of the profile, and their
subsequent deposition in the lower horizons. The process is the most active under pine
tree forests (see: Forest, Range and Wildland Soils).
Lateritization (currently replaced by the connotations allitization and ferrallitization) -

The process that removes silica and soluble bases from the upper layers of the soil,
creating a relative accumulation and concentration of sesquioxides (Fe and Al-oxides)
in the soil. As the alkaline bases are removed from the seat of their formation, the
residual soil is acidic in reaction. Though considerable eluviation takes place, there is no
marked horizonation as the eluviated materials are not re-deposited in the lower layers.
Depending on the intensity of the weathering process the residual soils are dominated
by Fe and Al compounds (ferrallitization) or by Al-(hydr)oxides only (allitization).
These processes act most intensively in warm and humid tropical climates with 2000-
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2500 mm annual rainfall and high temperatures (>22°C) throughout the year (see: Soils
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of the Humid and Sub-Humid Tropics).
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Gleization - A process of soil formation under an anaerobic environment and leading to
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the development of a gley horizon with green-blue colors, related to the reduction of
soluble ferrous iron under water-logged conditions. Where the groundwater fluctuates
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considerably with the season, the gley shows distinct mottling of yellow and rusty
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brown colors caused by alternate oxidation and reduction phenomena.
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Salinization - The process of accumulation of salts, such as sulfates or chlorides in the

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form of a salty horizon. It is active under conditions of highly saline or brackish

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groundwater, and evaporation being higher than precipitation, so that salts move up by
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capillary action from the groundwater. Desalinization is the removal, by leaching of

excess soluble salts from horizons that contain enough soluble salts to impair plant
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growth (see: Salinity and Alkalinity Status of Arid and Semi-arid Lands).
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Alkalinization - A process involving the accumulation of sodium ions on the exchange

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complex of clays, resulting in the formation of a sodic soil (Solonetz). At this moment a
high soil pH (>8.5) develops, soil colloids are dispersed and a very poor soil structure
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develops. The organic matter dissolved under alkaline conditions forms black organo-
clay coatings on the ped surfaces giving the soil a dark-colored appearance (Black
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Alkali Soils).
Solodization or de-alkalinization - The removal of Na + from the exchange sites and the
dispersion of clay, promoted by the addition of Ca 2+ to the formerly alkaline soil, often
under the form of easily soluble gypsum (see: Dry Lands and Desertification).
Pedoturbation - The process of mixing the soil due to faunal activity (ants, earthworms,
moles, termites, etc.), plant roots, natural swell-shrink processes or by man-made land
management practices. It is very active in boreal areas covered by long-time and usually
undisturbed forest vegetation (see: Forest, Range and Wildland Soils).

The rate of soil development varies with the intensity of the processes involved, and
with the age of the soil. In dry climates there is almost no water for either chemical
processes or organic material production. Hence, soil formation is mainly limited to an
incomplete physical breakdown of soil components. In a humid, warm climate
hydrolysis, dissolution and leaching are much more intensive, and soil properties
rapidly change into a material that is composed of stable mineral components.
Individual processes vary also in intensity over time. Under ideal conditions a
recognizable soil profile may develop within a couple of centuries. But under less
favorable environments, as is the case in deserts, the time taken for soil development
may extend over several thousand years.
4. The Soil Profile
An examination of a vertical section of a soil in the field reveals the presence of more or
less distinct horizontal layers. Such a section is called a profile, and the individual
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layers are regarded as horizons. The horizons above the parent material are collectively
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referred to as the solum (from Gr. Solum, soil, land or a parcel of land). The topsoil
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corresponds with the upper part of the solum which is enriched in humus and is the
major zone of root development. When the soil is cultivated this topsoil may correspond
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with the plow layer. The underlying layers between the topsoil and the regolith or parent
material are referred to as the subsoil. Figure 2 is an example of a deep profile
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developed over aeolian loam. The slightly darker topsoil extends over the upper 20-25
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cm. The subsoil includes a B-horizon with a well-developed structure (25-60 cm)
overlying a less well-structured and rather compact C horizon (60- 110cm+)
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Profile descriptions in the field make a distinction between master horizons named with
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capital letters like O, A, E, B, C, R (Table 1). Subordinate distinctions within these

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master horizons are indicated by lower case letters used as suffixes to designate specific
kinds of characteristics (Table 2).
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Surface or near-surface horizons relatively high in organic matter (OM) are designated
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O or A horizons, the difference between the two being determined by the amount of
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organic matter present. The surface horizon is considered organic if its OM content is
>30% and the mineral fraction has >50% clay, or if the OM content is >20% and the
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mineral fraction has no clay. Wetness generally favors the increasing thickness of O
horizons and may qualify as peat when it is > 40cm deep and its OM is >50%. The
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mineral horizons on the other hand, are low in OM and may overlie either a B or C
horizon, or even directly the rock mass.
Beneath the O or A horizon, in some environments, there is a light-colored horizon

relatively leached of iron compounds called the E horizon; this is identical to the A2
horizon of some (older) classifications. The B horizon commonly is beneath the surface
horizon(s), unless the latter has been eroded and the B horizon appears on top of the
new soil. It encompasses a multitude of soil characteristics relatively to those of the
assumed parent material. Among the B horizon characteristics are: clay accumulation, a
(yellowish) red color, the accumulation of iron compounds with or without organic
matter, and the residual concentration of resistant materials following the removal of

more soluble constituents under conditions of intensive weathering and leaching.
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Figure 2: A typical soil profile developed over aeolian loam, Belgium
The slightly weathered C horizon is beneath the B horizon, and forms the transition with
the partly weathered saprolite (see: Soils of the Humid and Sub-Humid Tropics) or
unaltered bedrock, the R horizon. In desert environments, carbonate buildup plays an
important role in soil morphology and genesis, and horizons high in carbonate are
designated K (see: Soils of Arid and Semi-arid Areas).
Soil horizons can be further subdivided by adding a number to the master horizon
designation. A3 and B1 are used for horizons transitional from the A to the B, with A3
having properties closer to A, and B1 having properties closer to B. Transitional

horizons can also be designated AB or AC if a more detailed subdivision is not possible

nor warranted. B2 is used for that part of the B horizon that displays the maximum
expression of the properties upon which the B horizon is defined (e.g. B2t for the
maximum expression of an argillic B horizon). A B3 horizon still retains many
properties of the B2 horizon but is transitional to the underlying horizon. A second
number can be added for even further subdivision (B21t, B22t and B31), based on
subtle changes in such properties as color or texture. Within the C horizon, numbers are
used to denote a vertical sequence of layers (C1, C2, etc.).
Since 1960 the Soil Conservation Service of the USDA has introduced a new set of
names for soil horizons because the more traditional terms, such as an A or B horizon,
were neither precisely defined nor used in the same sense by all workers. This new
terminology has now largely been taken over by other worldwide classification systems,
the World Reference Base for Soil Resources for example. The new terms, such as a
mollic or epipedon or an argillic subhorizon, are precisely defined, so much that at
times recognition of such horizons may require laboratory analysis. The boundaries
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between these units and those of the A, B and C horizons in a profile do not necessarily
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coincide. At present, both systems are in use: the traditional A, B, C nomenclature is
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mainly used for profile descriptions and field-related investigations, whilst the modern
terminology is mainly applied for soil classification purposes.
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Table 1 summarizes the major properties of the different master horizons. As the
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correspondence with the Soil Taxonomy nomenclature is not always evident (because
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criteria partly overlap), the correlations are only approximate. Table 2 defines the
subordinate distinctions.
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Symbol Layer/horizon description and corresponding horizons

in Soil Taxonomy (*)
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H Layer dominated by organic material, formed from the accumulation of un-

decomposed or partially decomposed organic material at the soil surface.
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Saturated with water for prolonged periods or once saturated, but now
artificially drained.
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*Histic epipedon: Surface horizon saturated for 30 or more consecutive

days in some time of most years, with 75% or more sphagnum, and low bulk
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density.
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O Surface accumulation of organic material, consisting of un-decomposed or

partially decomposed litter ( leaves, needles, twigs, moss, lichens, etc.)
overlying generally a mineral soil. Not saturated with water for a prolonged
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period. The mineral fraction is only a small percentage (generally < 50%) of the
volume of the material.
*See mollic or umbric horizons below.
A Mineral surface horizon in which all or much of the original rock structure has
been obliterated, having one of the following: (a) organic matter accumulation
intimately mixed with mineral soil, (b) properties resulting from cultivation or
similar human disturbance, (c) a morphology different from underlying B or C
horizons.
*Mollic epipedon: Dark colored (chroma < 4.0, value < 3.5 moist), with >
1% organic material, base saturation >50%. Often grass vegetation.
*Umbric epipedon: Similar to mollic epipedon except that base saturation is
< 50% . Often associated with (tropical) forest vegetation.

*Ochric epipedon: Too light in color and too low in organic matter than
mollic or umbric epipedons. Often associated with young soils and/or
semiarid vegetation.
E Or A2 horizon. Mineral horizon below O or A and above B horizon,
characterized by loss of clay, Fe, Al or a combination of these, leaving a
concentration of sand and silt particles. Light colors are mainly due to the color
of primary mineral grains.
*Albic horizon: Surface or lower horizon with light color determined by the
color of the sand or silt particles: value, moist, is 4 or more, or value, dry,
is 5 or more. If value, dry, is 7 or more, or value, moist, is 6 or more,
chroma is 3 or less. If value, dry, is 5 or 6, or value, moist is 4 or 5, chroma
is close to 2.
B Subsurface horizon under O, A or E horizons, showing little or no evidence of
original rock structure and having one or a combination of the following:
evidence of illuviation, removal of carbonates, residual concentration of
sesquioxides, coatings, well developed structure, brittleness.
*Argillic B horizon: Subsurface horizon with more silicate clay than in the A
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or E: 3% or more if overlying horizon has <15% clay; 1.2 times the amount
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of clay if overlying horizon has 15-40% clay; 8% or more if overlying
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horizon has >40% clay. Clay in B horizon is translocated (illuviation) from
overlying horizons or has formed in place, or both. Clay translocations are
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recognized in the field by oriented clay films on mineral grains, small
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channels or ped surfaces
*Natric B horizon: Like argillic horizon, but with columnar or prismatic
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structure and ESP > 15 in some sub-horizon.
*Spodic B horizon: Occurs generally below an E horizon, holds a
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concentration of organic matter and/ or sesquioxides translocated from E

horizon.
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*Oxic B horizon: Highly weathered subsurface horizon with low CE and

dominated by hydrated oxides of iron and aluminum and 1:1 clays.
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*Cambic B horizon: Subsurface horizon enough altered to eradicate most

rock structure, form some stable soil structure and remove or redistribute
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primary carbonate. Has higher chroma or redder hue than underlying

horizons.
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C Subsurface horizon, excluding bedrock, holding material from which the soil
has developed. Lacks properties of A and B horizons, but includes weathering
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as shown by mineral oxidation, accumulation of silica, carbonates, or more

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soluble salts, and gleying.

R Consolidated bedrock underlying soil. Sufficiently coherent when moist to
make hand digging with a spade impractical.
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* More complete and updated definitions can be found in USDA Soil Taxonomy
(1975) and related website.
Table 1: Soil horizon nomenclature and brief description of master horizons

(adapted from FAO Guidelines for Profile Description, 1990 and Soil Taxonomy, 1975)
Symbol Description
b Buried soil horizon.
c Concretions or nodules that have accumulated in a significant amount.
ca Accumulation of calcium carbonate in amount greater than the parent
material is presumed to have had; can occur in A, B, C and R horizons.

cs Accumulation of gypsum in amount greater than the parent material is

presumed to have had; can occur in A, B, C or R horizons.
f Frozen soil, with layers that contain permanent ice or are perennially
colder than 0°C
g Strong gleying or reduction of iron, so that colors approach neutral,
with or without mottles; can occur in A, B and C horizons.
h Accumulation of organic material (humus), appearing as coatings on
grains or as silt-size pellets; common in podzols.
ir Illuvial concentration of iron, appearing as coatings on grains or as silt-
size pellets; common in podzols.
j Jarosite mottles.
k Accumulation of carbonates, commonly calcium carbonate.
m Strong irreversible cementation (>90% cemented) or induration, for
example by accumulation of iron, calcium carbonate or silica.
n Accumulation of exchangeable sodium.
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o Residual accumulation of sesquioxides, different from s (below) which
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indicates illuvial accumulation of organic matter + sesquioxides.
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p Plowing or other tillage disturbance by Man.
q Accumulation of secondary silica (quartz).
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r Strong reduction.
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s Illuvial accumulation of sesquioxides in combination with amorphous
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dispersible organic matter.

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si Cementation by silica, as nodules or as a continuous medium; if
cementation is continuous the horizon is called a duripan or silcrete.
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t Accumulation of translocated clay, like in argillic B horizon.

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v Occurrence of plinthite, iron-rich and humus-poor material, firm when

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moist, and hardening irreversibly when exposed to air.

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w Development of color or structure, in particular in B horizons.

x Characteristics of a fragipan, related to firmness, brittleness or high bulk
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density.
y Accumulation of gypsum.
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z Accumulation of salts more soluble than gypsum.

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Table 2: Subordinate soil properties

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(adapted from FAO Guidelines for Profile Description, 1990; Soil Taxonomy, 1975,
and recent updates)
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5. Soil Composition and Soil Properties
5.1. Soil Composition
An average soil is composed of unconsolidated mineral (inorganic) compounds and

decayed plant (organic) material. Depending on their organic matter content soils can
therefore be differentiated into two major types. Soils with less than 20% organic matter
(or 30% if the clay content is high) are called mineral soils; those that have more
organic material are termed organic soils. The latter are by no means as extensive as are
mineral soils, yet their total area is more than 300 million ha, worldwide.

5.1.1. Organic Soils
Organic soils occur when high amounts of organic matter accumulate in poorly drained
areas. After plant decay water replaces air in pores and voids, thus preventing rapid
oxidation. Peat deposits are mainly found in cold climates (Russia, Canada, Finland)
though they can also be extensive in the tropics (12 million ha in Indonesia and
Malaysia, 1.2 million ha in Louisiana, US). The composition of the peat varies
depending on its origin and content: sedimentary peat, fibrous peat, woody peat.
Peat is often used, either mixed with mineral soil for potted plants and for home flower
and vegetable gardens, or as a substratum for gardens and lawns. Its use as domestic
fuel is declining, though it is still prevalent in remote areas of the Soviet Republic,
Ireland, Finland and Scotland (where it is an important component for giving a specific
flavor in the production of whiskey). Finally, it provides also an excellent substratum
for field vegetable production.
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The term muck is used to describe peat that is markedly decomposed whereby the
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original plant parts can (almost) no more be identified. In Soil Taxonomy (USDA, 1975)
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peat soils are called Histosols, and they include at suborder level Fibrists (where the
fibrous organic material can still easily be recognized), Saprists (where the original
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plant fibers have mostly disappeared) and two intermediate types: Hemists and Folists.
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The most important characteristics of organic soils are:

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a dark brown to intense black color;
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a high content of at least partly un-decomposed organic matter;

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a low bulk density, of the order of 0.20-0.30 g/cm3;

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a high water holding capacity on a weight basis, i.e. 2 to 4 times their dry weight
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(though part of this water might not be available to plants);

a loose structure and physical condition in general; most peat soils are porous,
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and easy to cultivate, which makes them very desirable for vegetable production;
a high surface area and corresponding high CE, 2 to 10 times higher than
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mineral soils, on a weight basis; this advantage disappears however on a volume

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basis; and
a relatively low pH
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5.1.2. Mineral Soils

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All other soils are called mineral soils. These are composed of a solid phase and of
pores which might be filled either by water or by air. The solid phase is made up of a
dominant mineral fraction and a less important organic fraction. A good or high quality
soil holds 48% of mineral fraction, 2% organic fraction, 25% water and 25% air. The
relative proportion of pores filled with water or air varies.
The mineral fraction contains a more or less inert part of coarse elements, sand and
loam, which provides a foothold for roots and forms the soil skeleton. Besides, it holds
an active fraction (clay and fine silt) with specific surface properties; the
physicochemical properties of these are at the basis of electrical charges and ion

absorption, and the formation of structural elements which influence the pore volume
and the air and water conditions of the profile.
The organic fraction is mainly concentrated in the surface layers and originates from the
decay of organic products of fauna and flora. It affects the sorption capacity of the
topsoil and the soil structure of the profile as a whole, and thus also the moisture status
of the root zone.
The relative importance of the water and gas phases in the soil is determined by soil
porosity. It varies between 25 and 50% and is influenced by soil texture (particle size),
soil structure and soil compaction. These properties are discussed in more detail in the
following sections.
5.2. Soil Texture
Soil texture refers to the relative proportions of various size particles in a given soil.
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Particle size analysis enables to fix adequately the percentages of the various
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constituents of the soil. This soil characteristic has an important impact on the soil
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moisture status and aeration, as well as on other qualities like workability, root
penetration and anchorage, cation retention, etc. Sandy soils are considered as “light”,
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clayey soils as “heavy” since they are either easy or more difficult in tilling and
cultivation.
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In soil sciences, the soil texture is quantified in terms of particle size composition of the
fine earth fraction, in particular in their relative proportion of mineral particles of less
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than 2 mm in size. Particles with a diameter > 2mm are considered as belonging to the
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so-called coarse fraction and are not part of the “fine soil fraction”. Coarse fragments
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are categorized as gravel (particle size diameter 2mm- 7.5cm), stones (diameter 7.5-25
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cm) and cobbles (diameter >25cm). For engineering and construction applications,
equal attention is given to both the fine and the coarse fractions, and a somewhat
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different classification of texture is taken into consideration (see: Soil Physics).

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The fine soil fraction is classified, after destroying the aggregates, according to size
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categories corresponding to an international scale: clay : < 2 μm; fine silt : 2-20 μm;
coarse silt (sometimes also called very fine sand): 20-50 μm; fine sand: 50-200 μm;
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medium sand: 200 μm - 1 mm; and coarse sand: 1-2 mm. It is recalled that some
national classification systems (Germany, Russia, many Anglo-Saxon countries) still
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use slightly different size limits, but there is a general tendency to rely to one uniform
system as described above.
Measurement - Soil texture is primarily estimated through a (rapid and cheap) field test
followed by a more detailed (more time-consuming and more costly) laboratory analysis
of a selected number of samples.
The field test is conducted through a finger test, i.e. by rubbing a moist or moistened
sample between thumb and fingers. Experienced field soil scientists are able to estimate
the relative proportions of sand, silt and clay at a <5% error. Clay feels as a smeary
paste, silt is smooth and soft like talc powder, and sand feels abrasive with individual

grains being observed with a 10-power hand-lens.
Laboratory tests do generally confirm well these field estimations, though there are
situations where this is not so. A good example of this is the highly weathered tropical
soils (Oxisols) where individual clay particles are cemented by iron to form pseudo-silt
and pseudo-sands. The field texture of these soils is therefore rather coarse and the soil
profile behaves as such in terms of moisture retention and water permeability
characteristics. The laboratory tests which apply a preliminary destruction of the iron
bounds as a standard procedure, give generally a much finer texture. Both estimations
have their value as the field texture is well correlated with the soil hydraulic properties
(water retention, permeability) while the laboratory data are more in line with the
physicochemical characteristics of the soil.
The commonly used laboratory methods for particle size analysis are the ones designed
by Bouyoucos and Robinson; for engineering purposes the focus is more on
sedimentation methods (see: Soil Physics). The Bouyoucos hydrometer method is
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relatively accurate (though somewhat underestimating the clay content) and fast. It
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determines the 3 textural fractions clay, silt and sand without separating them. The
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sample is first dispersed with a sodium pyrophosphate solution, treated with a high-
speed soil mixer, and then poured in a cylinder to which distilled water is added to bring
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the contents up to volume. With the help of a stirrer the soil suspension is thoroughly
mixed and the time noted. The rate of fall of suspended particles is related to size: sand
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settling faster than silt and silt settling faster than clay, based on Stoke’s law:
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V = 2 gr 2 ( d1 - d 2 ) / 9η ′
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where: V = velocity of fall (cm/sec); g = acceleration of gravity (cm/sec2, say 981); r =

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equivalent radius of particle (cm); d1 = density of particle (gram/cm3, say 2.65 for soil);
d 2 = density of medium (gram/cm3, say 1 for water) and η ′ = viscosity of medium (dyne
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sec/cm2).
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Two hydrometer readings are taken of the soil suspension using a special soil
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hydrometer. A reading taken after 40 seconds determines the weight of silt and clay
remaining in suspension, since the sand has settled to the bottom. Subtraction of the 40
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seconds reading from the sample weight gives the grams of sand. Another reading after
2 hours gives the weight of clay in the sample. The silt is calculated by difference: add
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the percentage of sand and the percent of clay and subtract from 100.
The Robinson method is based on the same principles. A given weight of oven-dry soil
is sieved through a series of different sand-size sieves, from where the sand fractions are
determined, and the supernatant liquid is put into suspension. An aliquot of the
suspended material is taken at different times and at corresponding depths in the
suspension, based on the Stoke’s equation. The air-dried fractions are expressed on a
percentage basis.
Textural diagram - The relative importance of the different particle size fractions,
generally regrouped into 3 main classes: clay (0-2 μm), silt (2-50 μm) and sand (50 μm-

2 mm) is represented on a triangular diagram, whereby the proportion of each of the 3

fractions is marked and the characteristic point of a soil or a given horizon is the
intersection of 3 lines parallel to the sides obtained by plotting on each side the values
in percentage of clay, silt and sand.
There exist a number of different textural diagrams but the most currently and
nowadays almost exclusively used diagram is the so-called USDA or FAO triangle
composed of 12 classes (Figure 3). For small-scale identification and mapping at
national or continental scales these classes may be regrouped. In the FAO-UNESCO
Soil Map of the World or the WRB Soil Classification only 3 major classes are
withheld:
coarse texture : containing < 15% clay and > 70% sand;
medium texture: containing <35% clay and < 70% sand; and
fine texture: containing > 35% clay
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Figure 3: Soil textural triangle, composed of 12 classes
Impact on classification and land use – Clay translocation through the profile is an
expression of soil profile evolution. The presence of an argillic horizon in the profile

and of clay coatings on ped surfaces are important diagnostic criteria for the
classification of soils.
Texture has also a major impact on the hydraulic properties of soils, both in terms of
water infiltration (permeability) and water retention capacity, as well as on consistence
and tillage properties, porosity and aeration, etc. It determines also management
practices, as for example the type of irrigation to be applied (flood irrigation is not
economical in too permeable soils). Table 3 gives a good correlation between some of
these parameters. It shows that loamy sand can hold only half of plant-available water
and almost three times less than a loam and clay soil, respectively. These correlations
can be used to certain extent (because it disregards the impact of structure) as a rule of
thumb in projects where no analytical facilities are available and rapid decisions need to
be taken.
Soil Texture Permeability Total Bulk Field Permanent Water

(cm/h) pore space density capacity wilting point content
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(%) (g/cm3) (%) (%) mm/m soil
Loamy sand 5 38 1.65 9 4 8 (**)
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(2.5-25) (32-42) (1.55-1.80) (6-12) (2-6) (7-10)
Loam 1.3 47 1.40 22 10 17
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(0.8-2.0) (43-49) (1.35-1.50) (18-26) (8-12) (14-19)
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Clay loam 0.8 49 1.35 27 13 19
(0.25-1.5) (47-51) (1.30-1.40) (23-31) (11-15) (17-22)
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Silty clay 0.25 51 1.30 31 15 21

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(0.03-0.5) (49-53) (1.25- 1.40) (27-35) (13-17) (15-23)
Clay 0.05 53 1.25 35 17 23
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(0.01-0.1) (51-55) (1.20-1.30) (31-39) (15-19) (20-25)

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* Average figures and range (between brackets).

** The moisture content on a volume basis (mm water per meter of soil) is obtained by
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subtracting weight percentages at field capacity and permanent wilting point, multiplied
by bulk density.
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Table 3: Correlation between texture and a number of other soil properties: bulk
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density, permeability, water retention capacity (*)

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The presence of a clay accumulation zone in the profile can sometimes affect the
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internal moisture and nutrient uptake status for plants and crops. Up to a certain point, a
clay increase in the subsoil is desirable as it can increase the amount of water and
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nutrients stored in that zone. By slightly reducing the rate of water movement through
the soil, it will reduce the rate of nutrient loss through leaching. However, if the
accumulation of clay is too drastic– so as to form a clay-pan, for example– it will
severely restrict the movement of water and air, as well as the penetration of roots in the
Bt horizon. It will also tend to increase the amount of water from rainfall or irrigation
that will occur as runoff on sloping land.
Finally, there is also a close correlation between clay content and cation exchange
capacity (CE) through the specific surface area and charge properties. Hence, 100% clay
soils should have a CE of 10-15 me/ 100 g soil when the dominant clay type is kaolinte,
15-40 me when it is illite-vermiculite, 70-75 me when it is montmorillonite and >100

me when it is allophane (see: Soil Mineralogy).
5.3. Soil Structure
While texture concerns primary the size of soil particles, soil structure refers to their
arrangement and coagulation. Structure is, therefore, the combination or arrangement of
single soil particles (sand, silt, clay) into secondary compounds or peds. These peds are
formed as a result of the coagulation of primary minerals bound by a cement like
microbial gum, iron oxide, organic carbon compounds (in particular polysaccharides) or
clay. Peds are separated from adjoining peds by surfaces of weakness.
Structure is a descriptive term and cannot be adequately quantified. Though there is no

formal agreement between researchers on the mechanisms that affect structural
development, it is believed that the following factors play a role: (1) wetting and drying;
(2) freezing and thawing; (3) physical activity of roots and soil animals; (4) the
influence of decaying organic matter and rest products of microorganisms; (5)
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modifying effects of absorbed cations (examples are Ca and Na); and (6) soil tillage.
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Figure 4: Types of structure: A: prismatic; B: columnar; C: angular blocky;

D: subangular blocky; E: platy; F: granular (USDA Soil Survey Manual, 1951)
Measurement – Structure is directly defined in the field by observing the nature and
form of the soil peds in the profile. It is characterized by three criteria: type, class, and
grade or degree of development. The type corresponds to the macroscopic appearance,
shape and arrangement of the peds. Class indicates ped size, i.e. the width or thickness
of the structural aggregate. The grade is the degree of aggregation or structure
development; it expresses the differential between cohesion within peds and adhesion

between peds. Grade of structure varies with soil moisture contents and tends to be
stronger as the soil dries; it is qualified as: structureless, weak, moderate and strong.
There are 4 principal types of soil structure: spheroidal, including granular and crumb
structures; platy-like; prism-like, including prismatic and columnar structures; and
block-like, including subangular blocky and cube-like structures (Figure 4).
Impact on other soil properties – Structure modifies the influence of texture with
regard to moisture, heat and air relationships in the profile. The macroscopic size of
most peds results in the existence of inter-ped spaces much larger than those that can
exist between adjacent sand, silt and clay particles within peds. It is this structural effect
on the pore space relationships that makes structure so important (see: Soil Physics).
Structure is important for the movement of water through the soil and for surface
erosion. The structure of the surface layers, though it varies from soil to soil, tends to
produce larger pores than would be the case if the soil had no structure. These pores
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allow the soil to take up large amounts of rain water, and thus to minimize runoff and
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surface erosion. The fact that many structural aggregates are water stable is important
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because it means that the percolating waters are fairly free of clay particles. However,
such aggregates may become unstable in water and lead to a compact soil, as is the case
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in soils saturated with Na. The presence of free CaCO3 in the soil has an opposite effect:
it improves structural stability.
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5.4. Soil Consistence
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Soil consistence is a term used to describe the resistance of a soil to mechanical stresses
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or manipulations at various moisture contents. It is a composite expression of those

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cohesive and adhesive forces that determine the ease with which a soil can be reshaped.
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Whereas structure deals mainly with the shape, size and distinctness of natural soil
aggregates, consistence refers to the strength and nature of the faces between particles.
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This physical soil property affects mainly traffic and tillage conditions of the land.
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Like structure it can not be properly quantified and is therefore commonly estimated by
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feeling and manipulating the soil by hand, or by pulling a tillage instrument through it.
The consistence of soils is generally described at 3 moisture levels: dry, moist and wet.
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If the soil is dry, the terms soft or hard are used; when moist, the terms loose, friable or
firm are used; if wet the terms sticky or plastic are used.
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5.5. Soil Color
Soil color is easily determined in the field in a semi-quantitative way by comparing the
field color to a standard Munsell Color chart. This consists of 175 color chips arranged
systematically on seven charts according to hue, value and chroma, e.g. the three
variables that combine to give the colors. Figure 5 is an example of chart 7.5 YR. The
hue (on the top right of the chart) refers to the dominant wave-length or color of light
between red, yellow and blue. Value (on the ordinate) or brilliance refers to the total
quantity of light, obtained by adding a black or white fraction; it increases from dark to
light colors. Chroma (on the abscissa) is the relative purity or intensity of the dominant

wavelength of light; it increases with decreasing proportions of white light.
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Figure 5: Example of a Munsell Color Chart (Munsell Color, 1975)

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The Munsell notation of color is a systematic numerical and letter designation of each
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of the three variable color properties described above left side of Figure 5). These
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properties are always given in the order: hue, value and chroma. Hence, a color is
marked as, for example, 7.5 YR 6/4, whereby 7.5 YR stands for the hue, 6 for the value
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and 4 for the chroma. This corresponds to a light brown color, which is directly
visualized in the Munsell Color book (right side of Figure 5).
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In most uniform soils there is normally only one color which defines the soil matrix.
This is normally expressed by indicating the exact correspondence with the Munsell
color (example 7.5 YR 6/4) or by referring to the nearest-by color (example: 7.5 YR
6/5 indicates that the soil color is intermediate between 7.5 YR 6/4 and 6/6). In a less
uniform horizon or in layers with a spotted pattern (as in gley soils subject to a
fluctuating water table), the color of both the dominant matrix and of all the mottles is
marked.
Impact on other soil properties – Soil color is an indirect expression of a number of

important soil qualities which are otherwise not easily quantified. A black color is

usually an expression of organic matter accumulation at the surface, though the intensity
of the black color is not always linked to the amount of carbon in the soil. This is the
case, for example, in tropical savanna soils under grass vegetation, or in most Oxisols
where the red matrix color masks to a certain extent the darker organic matter. In some
soils, like in Podzols, the color difference in the profile marks the position of the
leaching zone (pale white albic horizon) and the organic material accumulation in depth
(humus B-horizon). In peat soils well decomposed organic matter such as humus is
black or nearly so, while raw peat is usually brown.
Under well drained conditions the matrix color is an expression of the nature of the
parent material and of the pedogenetic development stage of the profile over different
rocks. Worldwide, soils developed over limestone remain white to yellowish white (10
YR), but with an increased leaching of CaCO3 the color turns yellow (7.5 YR) or
yellowish red (5 YR). Deep red to purple colors (10 R–2.5 YR) are typical for basaltic
substrata; yellowish red (5 YR) is the dominant hue for granitic soils; and shales
produce definitely yellowish soils (7.5 YR). Likewise are salt crusts characterized by a
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shiny white color, while calcium carbonate accumulation layers have a yellowish-white
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hue.
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In combination with the position in the profile, the color is also an indirect measure of
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the drainage. While a uniform deep red matrix color in tropical and subtropical soils is
always an expression of a good internal drainage, the presence of a grayish-red mottling
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in depth indicates a slower internal drainage and a fluctuating water table, dominated by
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alternating reduction and oxidation conditions.
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5.6. Bulk Density and Soil Porosity

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Bulk density is a measure of the weight of soil per unit volume (g/cm3), usually given
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on an oven-dry basis. It is an important parameter to estimate soil porosity. Bulk density

is mainly influenced by texture and organic matter content, and is therefore often
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extrapolated from these two parameters (Table 3). For clay soils it is in the order of 1.0
to 1.3 g/cm3; for sandy soils it varies between 1.3 and 1.8. Organic soils have lower
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bulk densities, with figures in the order of 0.3- 0.8. g/cm3. Completely packed mineral
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soils, i.e. without any pore space between the particles have a (particle) density of 2.6-
2.65 g/cm3. The latter figure corresponds to the density of the most common minerals in
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soils, quartz, feldspars and colloidal silicates. When an unusual amount of heavy
minerals (magnetite, epidote, zircon) is present in the soil, its density may attend 2.75
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g/cm3 or even higher.
Bulk density is rarely measured. It can be quantified in the field using Burger cylinders
or a membrane densitometer. In the laboratory, the weight of a sample coated with
paraffin in air is compared with that of a sample immersed in mineral oil (method based
on hydrostatic pressure). Bulk density is nevertheless an important parameter in
quantitative soil studies and in particular to convert laboratory data(which are mostly
given on a soil-weight basis) of other soil parameters into volume-based information
Such information is necessary, for example, in irrigation and drainage studies (for
calculating the amount of water that has to be supplied to a crop or that has to be
drained from the soil) or for estimating the rates of clay formation and carbonate

accumulation in the profile.
To convert per cent soil into weight per unit volume, the per cent figure is multiplied by
bulk density. The bulk density of a soil, or of the different horizons in the profile,
permits to assess the total volume and weight of soil over a given area and depth and,
subsequently, of the volume occupied by mineral soil and pores (see: Soil Physics). The
weight of a 20 cm thick surface horizon with a bulk density of 1.3 g/cm3 is
approximately 10,000 m2 (surface) x 1.3 g/cm3 (bulk density) = 2,600,000 kg/ha.
Soil porosity or total pore space can be assessed directly from bulk density. The
calculation is based on the following reasoning: if the entire soil volume would be
occupied by soil solids the pore space volume would be zero and the particle or bulk
density would be 2.60 – 2.65. If this density decreases, pores space increases, and the
volume occupied by solids decreases in inverse proportion to the bulk density. Hence,
for a bulk density of 1.3 g/cm3, the volume of solids is:
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1.3 g/cm3 ×100
= 50%
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2.6 g/cm3
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Inversely, the pore space is 100% - 50% = 50%.
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A proper interpretation of the pore space in view of soil aeration and water infiltration
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measurements is only possible if also the size of the pores is known, and this is mainly
determined by soil texture: sandy soils have mainly macro-pores and therefore allow
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water to infiltrate easily, while clayey soils are dominated by micro-pores; the latter
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have a low infiltration potential but a high water storage capacity.

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5.7. Water Retention and Infiltration

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Soil pores can be filled with water or air. In waterlogged soils, i.e. where the
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groundwater level is at the surface, all pores are filled with water. Because most plants
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need water and air both, this complete soil saturation can not persist for a long period
before plants start to suffer and, therefore, pores must be alternately filled with water
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and air.
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In non-saturated soils water can freely move both in the vertical (infiltration, capillary
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rise) and horizontal (lateral) direction insofar that alternate oxidation and reduction
conditions occur. Part of the soil water is, however, more or less fixed to the soil
particles due to the so-called matric forces. These are forces which resist gravitation
and, thus, retain water in the soil.
The infiltration rate and permeability of a soil depend mainly on the texture, which
determines the size of the pores. The measurement of the soil permeability can be
operated in the field by the double ring infiltrometer test. This measurement takes
several hours because after an initial rapid water infiltration the permeability tends
towards an equilibrium stage, and it is this stabilized rate which is the correct value.
The standardized infiltration rate of a soil is mainly determined by texture, but other

factors like structure, the presence of coarse fragments, mole and earthworm holes, and
clay mineral composition might affect the final figure as well. For this reason,
infiltration tests are always carried out in triplicate, and if the values still differ
consistently additional measurements are needed. Approximate infiltration rates which
can be used as a rule of thumb are given in Table 3.
In soils where horizons have a different textural composition the water infiltration rates
will differ accordingly. Under these conditions, the layer with the lowest infiltration will
determine the overall permeability of the profile. The effect of soil permeability can be
summarized as follows:
In sandy, very permeable soils the soluble components will rapidly be leached
and will concentrate in the groundwater; in fine-textured soils this process is
much slower;
On clayey soils the rainwater of heavy storms will stagnate on the surface and
temporarily obstruct soil aeration on flat surfaces or enhance erosion on slopes.
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Water retention and water holding capacity of a soil are primarily affected by soil
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porosity. In large pores water is mainly under the influence of gravitational forces; in
smaller pores water is held by matric forces. Water is held within the soil pores with
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varying degrees of tenacity depending on the amount of water present and on the size of
pores. Experimental research has shown that water which is held in the soil with a force
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of less the 0.3 atm. (sometimes less than 0.1 atm. depending on texture) can not be
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retained - and is thus lost for plant uptake - but is evacuated as drainage water; the
critical pressure at which this process starts is called field capacity.
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On the other hand, the water that is retained by the matric forces at a strength of more
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than 15 atm is no more available for most plants (some xerophytes are an exception)
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because they are not able to overcome this suction strength; this critical point is called
the wilting point. Obviously, a considerable amount of water in soils, e.g. the one found
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in the smallest micro-pores and around individual soil particles, is thus not available to
higher plants. The water that is held by the soil with a strength between 0.3 and 15 atm.
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is considered as useful for the vegetation. The principles which are at the basis of these
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hydraulic properties of the soils are discussed at large in Soil Physics.

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In conclusion, the total amount of water in the soil consists of:

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Gravitation water, e.g. the water that is held in the macro-pores up to field
capacity; all excess water from a rain storm is immediately drained from the
profile;
Absorbable capillary water: this is the water that is retained in the pores < 8
microns and which is held with a suction force between 0.3 and 15 atm.
Non-absorbable capillary water stored in the finer pores, and retained with a
force > 15 atm which is too high for most plants;
Hygroscopic water; it is the water that is mainly absorbed from air humidity and
is held by very strong matric forces in the very fine pores;
Crystal water is contained in the crystalline lattices of clay minerals and
therefore is not available to plants as well.

These different forms of water are gradually released by heating the soil progressively
up to 1000 °C.
5.8. Soil Air and Aeration
Soil pores can be filled with water or air. Except in completely saturated soils the latter
fraction occupies 15 to 30% of all pores. In a well aerated soil, i.e. in a soil where there
is a free exchange of soil air and atmospheric air, the composition of the soil air is
almost similar in oxygen and nitrogen concentrations. The CO 2 concentration is,
however, higher in the soil due the mineralization of humus and the respiration of roots
(see: Soil Biochemistry). In local pockets and soil parts where there is no free exchange
the concentrations of O2, N and CO 2 can change rather drastically.
Soil air concentrates mainly in the pores not occupied by water. After a rain, large pores
are the first to be vacated by the soil water, followed by the medium-sized pores as
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water is removed by evaporation and plant uptake. Thus, the soil air first occupies the
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large pores and then, as the soil dries out, also those intermediate in size. This explains
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why clayey soils (with a high proportion of tiny pores), are generally poorly aerated. In
such soils, water dominates and the rate of diffusion of air in and out the soil is small.
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As a result, levels of CO 2 are high while those of O2 are low, i.e. conditions
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unsatisfactory for good plant growth.

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In a well aerated soil the difference in composition between the atmosphere and the soil
air at 15 cm depth should be approximately 20.6% O2 ; 79.2% N and 0.25% CO 2 in the
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soil, as compared to 20.97% O2 ; 79.0% N and 0.03% CO 2 in the atmosphere.

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The CO 2 production in soil is estimated at 5 g/m2/day, but this figure can change as a
function of root activity and season of the year. It depends on temperature, moisture and
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the nature and amount of humus. The level of the CO 2 content in the soil is thus a good
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parameter for the soil biological activity and for soil fertility in general.
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The interchange of gases between the soil and the free atmosphere above depends
primarily on two factors: (a) the rate of biochemical reactions influencing the soil gases,
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and (b) the actual rate at which each gas is moving into or out of the soil; the latter is
also determined by the porosity, and thus by the bulk density, texture and structure.
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Obviously, the more rapid O2 is taken up by the plants and CO 2 is correspondingly

released, the greater will be the necessity for the exchange of gases. Because the total
pore space as well as the average size of the pores is much less in the deeper horizons,
the subsoil is usually more deficient in oxygen than is the topsoil. Likewise seasonal
differences in soil-air composition will occur because of the uneven wetting of the soil
and of biological activity.
5.9. Organic Matter
Organic matter is present in varying amounts in mineral soils and is then mainly
concentrated near the surface. The major source of soil organic matter is plant tissues.

Even in cropped areas approximately 10% of the crop is left in the soil (tops and roots)
and subsequently digested by microorganisms; animals are usually considered
secondary sources of organic material.
Raw organic tissues incorporated into the soil are attacked by a host of different soil
organisms. The easily decomposed compounds quickly succumb, first yielding
intermediate substances and finally the simple soluble products. Hence, two major kinds
of organic compounds tend to be stabilized in the soil: the microbial resistant
compounds of higher plant origin, and the new compounds such as polysaccharides and
polyuronides which are synthesized by microorganisms and held as part of their tissue.
Both compounds provide the basic framework for humus, which makes up the bulk of
all soil organic matter (see: Soil Biology and Microbiology and Soil Biochemistry).
Along this humus forming process, a number of side reactions occur that bind proteins
and other organic nitrogen compounds as integral parts of the humus complex, thereby
protecting the N from degradation to simple inorganic forms. Regardless of the
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mechanism by which nitrogen is bound, the important fact is that the resultant product,
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i.e. the newly formed humus, is quite resistant to further microbial attack.
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The chemistry of humus, as well as the processes involved in its formation is
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exceedingly complex. Large amounts of CO 2 are involved during its formation, with
carbon being the dominant component. The composition of humus is, however,
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relatively uniform. On a weight basis the dry matter is mostly carbon and oxygen, with
<10% of hydrogen and inorganic elements (ash). On an elemental basis more than 90%
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of dry matter is C, N and O; with N, S, P, K and Ca as minor components. Its major

characteristics can be summarized as follows:
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Colloidal humus particles are composed of C, N, H and O. They contain 3-

6% nitrogen and 58% carbon. The organic matter content can be estimated
by multiplying the percentage of carbon by 1.724
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Its surface area is very high, generally exceeding that of silicate clays.
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The colloidal surface of humus is negatively charged, but is pH dependent.

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At high pH the CE of humus far exceeds that of silicate clays (average 260
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cmol/kg)
Its water holding capacity on a weight basis is 4-5 times that of silicate clays,
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in other words humus will absorb from a saturated atmosphere water

equivalent to 80-90% of its weight.
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Humus has a low plasticity and cohesion, which helps in a good aggregate
formation and stability.
Humus is an important reservoir of P and S.
The C/N ratio is an indicator of the decomposition of the humus: it is >20 in
peat soils and ranges around 10-12 in well aerated soils. This ratio varies
moreover with the nature of the humus, the stage of its decomposition, the
nature and depth of the soil, and the climatic and other environmental
conditions under which it is formed
Impact on other soil properties and land use – Soil organic matter is important to
many other soil properties, especially to soil structure, water retention, permeability and

cation exchange capacity. In tropical soils dominated by low activity clays and in sandy
soils poor in clay, humus is the most important soil component for nutrient fixation and
water retention.
Organic matter acts as a binding agent between individual particles and, thus,
encourages the formation of clumps or aggregates. Organic matter influences the
physical and chemical properties of soils far out of proportion to the small quantities
present. Furthermore, it supplies energy and body building constituents for most of the
microorganisms, and is a direct supplier of nutrients for plants and crops.
5.10. Soil pH
The soil pH (or soil acidity) is an expression of the ion concentration in the soil and in
the soil solution, and as such it is a good parameter to characterize the exchangeable
complex of the cations adsorbed to colloid surfaces. Ions commonly present are
Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , K + , Na + (the four of them often called the alkaline earths),
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H + , Cl − , NO3− , SO 4 2− , HCO3− , CO32− and OH − . The relative proportion of these ions
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determines the soil pH.
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The chemical concept of pH stands for the logarithm of the reciprocal of the
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concentration of H+ ions in a solution. It can vary between 0 and 14 in chemical
solutions, but in the soil its range is limited between 2.5 and 9.5. The neutral value is
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7.0. Below and above that figure the soil is considered acid or alkaline (basic). In acid
sulfate soils the pH can drop to a figure as low as 2.5-3. In podzols, peat soils and
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highly weathered tropical soils it is often less than 5; in degraded leached soils between
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4 and 5; in brown forest soils between 5 and 6.5; in rendzina and calcareous soils
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between 7.5 and 8.5; in sodic soils between 8.2 and 9.5. Table 4 defines the pH ranges
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as they are commonly used in soil science literature.

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Hydrogen ions are derived from rainfall and from organic and inorganic acids produced
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within the soil. The pH of rain varies between 3.0 and 9.8. Pure rainwater, in
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equilibrium with atmospheric CO 2 at 25°C has an average pH of 5.7. Values lower than
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this are thought to be due partly to atmospheric pollution, whereas higher values are
attributed to salts derived both from ground water or wind-blown components. Carbonic
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acid is formed within the soil by a combination of CO 2 (the content of which varies
with respiration by plant roots and microorganisms) and water.
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The pH of a given soil is not uniform throughout. There might be slight variations (less
than one unit) from place to place due to variations in CO 2 or organic acid
concentrations, the content and composition of the exchangeable bases, or the presence
of nearby roots, since these commonly contain adsorbed H + . Such slight fluctuations
are observed when soils dry up, especially above average field temperatures (pH
increases), or in spring and summer when biological activity increases and more acid
exudates are released (pH decreases).
More important variations in soil pH (more than one unit difference) take place under

conditions whereby:
The amount of adsorbed hydrogen and aluminum increases (a) in the case of
organic matter decomposition and carbonic acid ( H 2 CO3 ) formation which
results from the reaction of CO 2 with water; (b) in the case of transformation of
inorganic acids like H 2SO 4 and HNO3 , both formed from organic decay and
microbial action on certain fertilizer materials such as sulfur and aluminum
sulfate, (c) in the case of acid rainwater (pH 2-4.5), where the acidity in the
atmosphere is generated from oxides of nitrogen and sulfur coming mostly from
the combustion of coal, gasoline and other fossil fuels.
The amount of adsorbed bases increases due to: (a) weathering which releases
exchangeable cations from minerals and makes them available for adsorption;
(b) soil management techniques are applied like liming or irrigation with water
that contains various kinds of salts; (c) avoidance of leaching, for example
through natural conditions in arid soils.
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The resistance to a change in the pH of a soil solution is called soil buffering. It can
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mainly be related to the tendency to achieve equilibrium between the hydrogen ion
concentration of the soil solution (active acidity) and the changing amount of hydrogen
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and aluminum ions adsorbed on the soil colloids. Obviously, the higher the exchange
capacity of a soil, the greater will be its buffering capacity.
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Determination of soil pH- There are several ways to determine the soil pH depending
on the accuracy required. The most accurate method is by using a pH meter; in this
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electrometric method the hydrogen concentration of the soil solution is balanced against
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a standard hydrogen electrode or a similarly functioning electrode.

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A more simple and easy but somewhat less accurate method consists in the use of a soil
color indicator and its comparison with a standard color scale. By using a number of
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dyes, either separately or mixed, a pH range of 3-8 is easily covered. In making such a
pH determination the sample is saturated with the dye, and after standing in contact a
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few minutes a drop of the liquid is run out and its color observed. This method is
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accurate within about 0.2 unit.

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Impact on land use- The soil pH determines to a large extent the availability and
potential uptake of plant nutrients from the soil (see: Soil Chemistry and Fertility). A
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pH range of 6-7 seems to promote the most readily availability of plant nutrients. Under
lower pH values nutrients are either absent or become less available.
From pH < 4.5 – 5.0 an appreciable amount of Al, Fe, Mn are soluble and become toxic
to certain plants or, as is the case for Fe, bind P in the soil so as to make it unavailable
for root uptake. However, if in such acid soils the pH is rapidly increased, precipitation
can take place and the amount of these ions in solution decreases until at neutrality or
thereabout certain plants may suffer from a lack of available manganese and iron. This
is especially true if a decidedly acid sandy soil is suddenly brought to a neutral or
alkaline condition by an excessive application of lime. If the reaction is held within a
range of 6.0-7.0 the deficiency of Fe and Mn may be avoided. Copper and zinc are

affected in the same way by a rise in pH, the critical point being between pH = 6 and 7;
above 7 their availability definitely declines.
Under moderately alkaline conditions (pH between 7.0 and 8.5) Ca 2+ is the dominant
cation. In soils with a pH between 7.3 and 8.5 there is free lime in the root zone and this
may negatively affect the growth and production of some plants and crops. At pH > 8.5
an excess of Na + both affects nutrient uptake of most plants and soil structure and
aeration (Table 4).
pH range Definition Impact on Base Saturation and Cation Activity

< 4.5 Extremely acid BS < 15%; much exchangeable Al which is toxic
4.5 – 5.0 Very strongly acid BS 15-35%; moderate to few exchangeable Al
5.1 – 5.5 Strongly acid BS 35-50%; H dominant; no more exchangeable Al
5.6 – 6.0 Medium acid BS approx. 50%; H dominant
6.1 – 6.5 Slightly acid BS 50-80%; few H; alkaline earths dominate
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6.6 – 7.3 Neutral BS 80-100%; exchangeable Ca and Mg dominate
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7.4 – 7.8 Mildly alkaline
LS BS 100%; exchangeable Ca dominates; free Ca
7.9 – 8.4 Moderately alkaline BS 100%; Ca dominates; few exchangeable Na
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8.5 – 9.0 Strongly alkaline BS 100%; much exchangeable Na that is toxic
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> 9.1 Very strongly alkaline BS 100%; exchangeable Na dominates, toxic
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Table 4: Impact of different pH ranges on base saturation and ion activity

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Soil organisms are influenced by the pH fluctuations of the soil solution. Bacteria,
except those that oxidize sulfur to sulfuric acid, and actinomycetes generally function
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better in mineral soils at intermediate and higher pH values; their activity is sharply
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curtailed when the pH drops below 5.5. Fungi however are particularly versatile,
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flourishing satisfactorily at a wide range of pH. In normal soils, therefore, fungi

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predominate at the lower pH values, but at the intermediate and higher ranges they meet
strong competition from the bacteria and actinomycetes.
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All in all, a soil in the intermediate pH range presents the most satisfactory biological
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regime. Nutrient conditions are favorable without being extreme, and phosphorus
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availability is at a maximum. For this reason, soil pH manipulation is a current

management technique in farming. A rise of the pH is sometimes necessary under
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conditions that the soil is naturally acid or because of the acidifying effect of certain
fertilizers; this is achieved by adding a Ca-compound, either under the form of lime
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( CaCO3 ) which works slowly, or gypsum ( Ca 2SO 4 ) which is much faster.
A reduction of the soil pH is sometimes desirable to favor such plants as rhododendrons

or azaleas, or to discourage certain diseases, especially actinomycetes which produce
potato scab. In gardens and over small surfaces this may be done by mixing acid
forming organic matter (leaf-mold, pine needles, tan-bark, sawdust and moss peat) with
the soil. Otherwise, or on larger surfaces, a similar result may be achieved by using
acidifying chemicals such as ferrous sulfate, sulfur or sulfuric acid.

5.11. Cation Exchange Complex
Most soil colloids, both inorganic and organic, have a net electronegative surface
charge, and cations liberated from natural weathering are attracted to these charged
surfaces. The strength of cation attraction varies with the colloid and the particular
cation. The cation exchange capacity (CE) of a soil stands for the total quantity of
cations it can absorb or exchange under well defined pH conditions.
The CE of a soil is expressed in moles of positive charge per unit mass: cmol/kg or in
milliequivalents per 100 g of soil (me/100g soil). Cations are adsorbed and exchanged
on a chemically equivalent basis. This means that one mole of charge is provided by
one mole of H + , K + or any other monovalent cation, by ½ mole of Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ or other
divalent cation, or by 1/3 mole of Al3+ or other trivalent cation. In older literature CE
has been expressed as milliequivalent per 100g of soil. As in the International System of
Units (SI) 1 milliequivalent per 100g of soil is equal to 1 centimole of positive or
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negative charge per kg of soil, it is easy to compare soil data using either of these
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methods.
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The CE of a soil is determined by its clay and humus content, the type of the clay and
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the pH. The sand and silt fractions have exposed unsatisfied negative bonds, but due to
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a low specific surface, they contribute little to the CE of most soils.
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Soils high in clay and humus have a high CE. Because of the various surface
characteristics of different clay types (see: Soil Mineralogy) also the type of clay is
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important. Kaolinite has a CE of 15 me/100 g soil, illite 25-40 me/100 g soil, and
montmorillonite 70-100 me/100 g soil. Well-humified organic matter can attain between
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180 and 250 me/100 g soil. On weight basis, humus particles have thus a greater
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nutrient retention capacity than clay. However, clay is generally present in larger
amounts and, therefore, its total contribution to the chemical and physical properties are
usually equal or even higher than that of humus.
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The CE can also vary with the soil pH. At very low pH only the permanent charge of
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the clay (linked to isomorphous substitutions in the silicate clay crystals) and a small
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portion of the charges of organic colloids hold ions that can be replaced by cation
exchange. As the pH is raised the H + held by organic colloids and silicate clays such as
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kaolinite becomes ionized and is replaceable. Also the aluminum hydroxyl ions are
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removed releasing thereby additional exchange sites on the mineral colloids. The
variable charges are pH dependent. The net result is an increase in the negative charge
on the colloids and, in turn, an increase in the CE. In most cases the CE is determined at
pH = 7 or above. This means that it includes most of these charges dependent on pH as
well as the permanent charges.
Cation Exchange Capacity, Exchangeable Bases and Base Saturation- There are
two groups of natural cations that can occupy the exchange sites of clay and humus:
Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , K + and Na + on the one hand and H + and Al3+ on the other hand. The two
groups of cations have opposing effects on soil acidity and alkalinity. Hydrogen and
aluminum tend to dominate very acid soils. Most of the other cations, called

exchangeable bases, neutralize soil acidity and dominate in neutral and alkaline soils.
The proportion of CE occupied by these bases is called the percentage base saturation.
This parameter is a good expression of the amount of nutrients available for plant
uptake. As this parameter is directly related to the pH concentration, there exists a good
correlation between the percentage base saturation of a given soil and its pH (Table 4).
The greater the supply of a given cation from weathering, the greater the likelihood that
it will be adsorbed according to the law of mass action, and the higher will be the base
saturation. The amounts and kinds of cations actually adsorbed, however, are
significantly affected by cation valence and hydrated radius.
Cations with a greater valence are adsorbed more efficiently than cations of a lower
valence (example Ca 2+ versus K + ). Moreover, for a given valence the cation with the
smallest hydrated radius will move the closest to the negatively-charged soil particle
and be more strongly adsorbed. The energy of adsorption decreases as the square of the
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distance. Considering some of the most common exchangeable cations in soils, the
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replace-ability series is usually Al>Ca>Mg>K>Na . Exchangeable hydrogen is difficult
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to include in the series because of the uncertainty of its hydration properties. Calcium is
adsorbed more strongly than sodium because it has both a greater valence and a smaller
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hydrated radius. As a result, sodium is readily leached from soils of humid regions,
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while calcium is preferentially adsorbed, also because it is frequently the most abundant
exchangeable cation.
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A few soil colloids have a positive charge; this is the case for iron and aluminum
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hydroxides (sesquioxides) and amorphous materials such as allophane and can attract
negatively charged anions like Cl− or NO 3− or H 2 PO 4 − . This process affects mainly
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the uptake of mineral fertilizers provided in such a form.

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Measuring Cation Exchange Capacity and Exchangeable Bases - The CE is

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determined routinely by saturating all exchange adsorption sites with a single index
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cation, such as ammonium NH 4 OAc method) or barium ( BaCl2 -triethanolamine

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method) at pH = 7, followed by the displacement of the NH 4 with 1N KCl, and

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determination of NH 4 in the percolate. The individual bases are directly determined in

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the percolate by flame photometry or atomic absorption spectrometer.

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6. Soil Survey and Classification
Soil surveying is the process of identifying and describing soils and to locate their
extension on a map. The Soil Survey Manual (USDA, 1951) defines a soil map as a
cartographic document designed to show the distribution of soil types or other soil
mapping units in relation to other prominent physical and cultural features of the earth’s
surface. The units may be shown separately or as soil associations named and defined in
terms of taxonomic units. This definition is intended to exclude maps showing single
soil characteristics like texture, slope, depth, color, or arbitrary combinations of two or
more of these; maps showing soil qualities like fertility, drainage or erosion risk; or
maps showing individual soil genetic factors or combinations of them.

The process of mapping or surveying consists of walking over the land at regular
intervals and taking notes of soil differences at the surface and in the nature of
superposed horizons in the profile. Therefore, it needs to use auger and profile pit
descriptions. It also incorporates the study of all related surface features, such as slope
gradients, evidence of erosion, land use, vegetative cover, and cultural features.
Boundaries are drawn directly on topographic or cadastral maps, upon availability, or
on aerial photographs representing, in most places, changes from one soil to another.
6.1. Types of Soil Surveys
There are four main types of soil surveys, generally determined by the scale and density
of observations: detailed, semi-detailed, reconnaissance and schematic surveys. Detailed
surveys are at scale 1/20,000 or larger. Most of the survey work is done in the field,
based on observations at a density of 1 per cm2 of map. The soil unit is the type or
series, and these are generally homogeneous in terms of direct agricultural or other uses
at farm or parcel levels. Detailed soil surveys allow making recommendations on the
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type of crops to be grown, including a reasonable estimation of yield levels.
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Semi-detailed surveys are at scales between 1/20,000 and 1/50,000. The density of field
observations varies between 1 and 4 per cm2, but the latter is only acceptable if good
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aerial photos are available and after the surveyor has been able to make a good
correlation between inherent soil properties and surface features directly observed on
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the photos. The mapping unit is generally not homogeneous and is either a complex or
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an association of soils. Semi-detailed surveys are useful for regional planning and rural
development over small areas, with recommendations focusing on groups of crops
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(cereals, tree crops) and general yield estimations.

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Reconnaissance surveys refer to mapping scales between 1/50,000 and 1/200,000; the
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map unit is invariably a soil association. This is a grouping of soils related to each other
in a catena or landscape relationship. In other words, the soil association indicates the
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presence of 3 or more soils, qualified as dominant (covering more than 50% of surface),
associated (covering 15-50% of the surface) or inclusions (covering less than 15% of
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the surface). This level of mapping is useful in the study of extensive land use problems
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or for regional agricultural or ecological planning. It does not allow making reasonable
yield estimations. The density of observations varies between 1 to 50 and 250 ha and is
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a function of the use that can be made from remote sensing techniques (Landsat and
other satellite images); they are made to identify the main properties of the individual
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units within the association. Therefore, reconnaissance surveys can be made quickly
and at reasonably low cost.
Schematic surveys are operated at scales smaller than 1/200,000 and are in fact more
geomorphologic studies than real soil investigations. Most of the work is focused on the
delimitation of major landscape units and of their subsequent characterization in terms
of soils. They require good satellite images and are only carried out as a first step in
exploring almost virgin land where little or no land data are available. The main purpose
of this type of mapping is to localize areas where more in-depth studies might be useful
in a later stage, and/or to exclude areas where such investigations are not economical for
the given purpose.

6.2. Soil Survey Procedures
Soil surveys are based on the description of soil properties at representative locations in
the landscape (point observations), and the subsequent grouping of these observations in
more or less homogeneous soil units (aerial units). Three types of procedures can be
applied: grid mapping, free mapping and the ethno-pedological approach.
In the grid mapping approach individual field observations are carried out at fixed
distances from each other, following a close grid which covers the land independently
of topographical or hydrographical variations. The advantage of this system is that it
describes all parts of the land equally without any subjective interpretation from the
surveyor. It is often conducted by un-experienced soil surveyors; in detailed surveys
where all soils are to be included, however small their extension may be, they must be
mapped. Its disadvantage is that it is time-consuming and often includes observations
which were not really necessary for a good mapping of the area concerned.
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The principle of free surveying is based on the concept that the field observations
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should only be carried out to accurately describe and delineate the different types of
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soils, making use of modern techniques of mapping like remote sensing applications. In
other words, free surveying can only be applied after a preliminary interpretation of the
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aerial photo cover has allowed a good delineation of homogeneous landforms which
coincide with characteristic soil units. It requires good survey experience and the ability
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to understand the relationship between simple landforms and soil cover and, therefore, it
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can only be carried out if a good photo cover is available. The advantage of this method
is that it is faster and more economical than grid mapping. It is often used in semi-
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detailed and reconnaissance surveys, where it forms a first step in the survey, followed
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by the identification of zones which need more detailed investigations. In schematic

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surveys it is the only applicable procedure.

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As field mapping is a time-consuming and costly procedure it often depends on the

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availability of funds, and in recent years such funds are often lacking. To overcome this
problem there is now a tendency to integrate local untapped knowledge in the system by
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asking local people to identify the different types of soils they know in their area and to
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show in the field where these soils are located, viz. where their properties change. In a
subsequent step the soil surveyor needs to describe the soils identified and to control the
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field limits through a few additional field observations. The advantage of this system is
that it is relatively fast and cheap, while the end product is reasonably accurate. The
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correct application of this procedure requires nevertheless that the soil surveyor should
be able to decide for himself to what extent the ethno-pedological information meets the
requirements of the study, and to what extent additional data should be collected.
6.3. Purpose and Use of Soil Maps
The greatest objective of drafting a soil map is to know and understand the nature and
properties of the soils and their extension, slope and degree of erosion, etc. for a
subsequent optimal land use and natural resource management. To meet these objectives
the soil map should not only be accurate, but it should also be accompanied by a proper
report describing the soil properties registered (generally supported by analytical data)

and providing the interpretation of such data and recommendations for the proper
objectives of the study. In the past many soil surveys have failed to meet the objectives
of the users by remaining too descriptive and academic, without due attention to the
needs of those who have commanded the study. This point has been a major matter of
concern at the 18th World Soil Congress in 2006 in Philadelphia, USA, when the future
research directions and opportunities of soil science were taken into consideration.
There are quite a number of institutions which are keen to make use of soil survey
investigations. This refers in the first place to regional planning agencies concerned
with land capability, land use and rural development strategies. Irrigation and drainage
needs are exclusively based on soil properties and their changes. Large-scale fertilizer
applications, in particular under conditions where over-consumption should be avoided
for environmental reasons, are linked to soil properties and plant needs. Soil
conservation planning and environmental protection require a good knowledge of the
soils concerned and their relative extension in the landscape.
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Banks and other money-lending agencies use soil surveys in determining security for
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loans. Real estate companies and individuals interested in buying or selling land make
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extensive use of soil surveys to assess the market value of the land (see: The Value and
Price of Land). Taxes are based on soil types in some countries. Soil information is also
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used in highway and drainage works, by various kinds of manufacturers in selecting
suitable locations for factories.
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6.4. Soil Classification
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Objects are classified with a view of arranging them into classes or groups, based on a
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hierarchical system of criteria or factors. Soil classifications use diagnostic soil

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properties like the presence of specific horizons, texture, depth, etc. which can either be
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recognized or measured in the field or in the laboratory and are an expression of soil
formation (pedogenesis) and profile development. Because criteria might differ or their
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relative weight in the hierarchical system might be unequal, there exist different soil
classification systems. The principles of soil classification in general and of the soils in
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different agro-climatic zones in particular have been discussed at large in: Soil
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Geography and Classification, Soils of Arid and Semi-Arid areas, Mediterranean Soils,
and Soils of the Humid and Sub-humid Tropics, respectively.
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A first genetic classification was suggested about 1880 by the Russian scientist
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Dokoutchaiev. The principle has been further developed by European and American
researchers in the beginning of the last century, and can largely be found back in the
French CPCS classification. In this system, now largely abandoned, soils are classified
on the basis of their obvious or presumed pedogenetical history, even if the profile
properties that should reflect this evolution are not always clearly observed. More recent
classifications, like US-Soil Taxonomy and the World Reference Base for Soil
Resources (WRB) use mainly more quantified criteria. Though very often the two
systems use similar diagnostic criteria they also differ in that the first includes pedo-
climate as an important differentiating factor, while for the latter this criterion is not
taken into consideration.

The particularity of modern systems is that they identify classes of soils on the basis of
properties as found today and that can be measured quantitatively either in the field or
in the laboratory. Moreover, the measurements so obtained can be verified by others.
This lessens the likelihood of controversy over the place of a given soil in the
classification system – which is common when scientists deal with systems where
genesis or presumed genesis is the basis for the classification.
The advantage of a quantitative system over the one based primarily on (presumed) soil
genesis are: (1) it permits classification of soils rather than soil forming processes; (2) it
focuses on the soil rather than on related sciences such as geology and climatology; (3)
it permits the classification of soils of unknown genesis as only the knowledge of their
properties is needed; (4) it permits greater uniformity of classification as applied by a
large number of soil scientists. Differences in interpretation of how a soil was formed
do not influence its classification in this scheme.
The second significant feature of a system like Soil Taxonomy is the nomenclature
S
employed, especially for the broader classification categories. The names give a
LS
different connotation of the major characteristics of the soils in question – a connotation
R
easily understood in many languages since Latin or Greek root words are the basis for
the names. Tables 5 and 6 give an overview of the formative syllables, derivation and
TE
O
meaning for the Soil Orders and Suborders, the highest hierarchical categories in Soil
Taxonomy (USDA, 1975 and updates). The most recent versions of the World
-E
Reference Base for Soil Resources (FAO, 2006) follow this trend by using clearly
AP
defined prefix and suffix qualifiers.
O
Order Formative Derivation Meaning

H
syllable
SC
1. Entisol Ent Meaningless syllable Recent soil

C
2. Vertisol Ert L. verto, turn Inverted soil

3. Inceptisol Ept L. inceptum, beginning Inception or young soil
E
4. Aridisol Id L. aridus, dry Dry soil

5. Mollisol Oll L. mollis, soft Soft soil
N
PL
6. Spodosol Od Gr. spodos, wood ash Ashy (Podzol) soil

7. Alfisol Alf Meaningless syllable Pedalfer (Al-Fe) soil
U
8. Ultisol Ult L. ultimus, last Ultimately leached soil

M
9. Oxisol Ox F. oxide, oxide Soils with Fe and Al oxides

10. Histosol Ist Gr. histos, tissue Organic soils, tissues visible
SA
11. Andisol And Modified from ando Having andic properties

12. Gelisol El L. gelare, to freeze Frozen soils
Table 5: Formative elements, derivations and meanings of Orders in Soil Taxonomy

(USDA, 1975 and http://soils.usda.gov/technical/classification/ taxonomy)
Formative Derivation of formative Connotation of formative element

element element
Alb L. albus, white Presence of an albic (bleached) horizon
Anthr Gr. anthropos, human Modified by humans
Aqu L. aqua, water Characteristics associated with wetness

Ar L. arare, to plow Mixed horizon

Arg L. argilla, clay Presence of an (illuvial) argillic horizon
Bor Gr. boreas, northern Cool soil
Calc L. calcis, lime Presence of a calcic horizon
Camb L. cambrare, to exchange Presence of a cambic horizon
Cry Gr. kryos, ice cold Cold
Dur L. durus, hard Presence of a duripan
Fibr L. fibra, fiber Least decomposed stage
Fluv L. fluvius, river Floodplain
Fol L. folia, leaves Mass of leaves
Gyps L. gypsum, gypsum Presence of gypsic horizon
Hem L. hemi, half Intermediate stage of decomposition
Hist Gr. histos, tissue Presence of organic (peaty) material
Hum L. humus, earth Presence of organic matter
Orth Gr. orthos, true The common ones
S
Per LS L. per, throughout (time) Periodic moisture regime
Psamm Gr. psammos, sand Sand texture
R
Rend Modified from rendzina High carbonate content
Sal L. base of sal, salt Presence of a salic horizon
TE
O
Sapr Gr. saprose, rotten Most decomposed stage
Torr L. torridus, hot and dry Torric moisture regime
-E
Turb L. turbidus, disturbed Presence of cryoturbation

AP
Ud L. udus, humid Udic moisture regime
O
Ust L. ustus, burnt Ustic moisture regime

Vitr L. vitrium, glass Presence of volcanic glass
H
SC
Xer Gr. xeros, dry Xeric moisture regime

C
Table 6: Formative element in the names of Suborders in Soil Taxonomy

E
(USDA, 1975 and http://soils.usda.gov/technical/classification/ taxonomy)

E
N
PL
Glossary
U
Adsorption: The attraction of ions or compounds to the surface of a solid.

Colloids adsorb large amounts of ions and water; different from
M
absorption which refers to the movement of ions and water into

the plant root as a result of a diffusion process.
SA
Aeration (soil): The process by which soil pores are filled by air from the
atmosphere. In a well-aerated soil, the soil air is similar to the
atmosphere above. Less well aerated soils contain more carbon
dioxide and less oxygen than the atmosphere above the soil.
Available water: The portion of water in a soil that can be readily absorbed by
plant roots, i.e. the water that is held between field capacity (pF
1) and wilting point (pF 4.2).
Base saturation The extent to which the adsorption complex of a soil is
percentage: saturated with exchangeable cations other than hydrogen and
aluminum. It is expressed as a percentage of the total cation
exchange capacity.

Bulk density: The mass of dry soil (after drying at 105°C) per unit bulk
volume, generally expressed in grams/cm3.
Cation exchange The sum total of exchangeable cations a soil can adsorb,
capacity (CE): generally expressed in me/ 100 grams soil or cmol/kg soil.
Consistence: The combination of properties of soil material that determines
its resistance to crushing and its ability to be molded or changed
in shape. Such terms as loose, friable, soft, plastic, and sticky
describe soil consistence.
Eluviation: The movement of soil material in suspension (or in solution)
from one or more soil layers.
Epipedon (in Soil A diagnostic surface horizon that includes the upper part of the
Taxonomy): soil darkened by organic matter, or the upper eluvial horizons,
or both.
Gley soil: Soil developed under conditions of poor drainage resulting in
reduction of iron and other elements and in gray colors and
mottles.
S
Illuviation: LS The process of deposition and accumulation of soil material
removed from one horizon, usually from an upper to another
R
lower horizon in the soil.
The process of removing materials in solution from the soil by
TE
Leaching:
O
percolating waters
Mineral soil: A soil consisting predominantly of, and having its properties
-E
determined predominantly by mineral compounds. Usually

AP
contains < 20% organic matter, but may contain an organic
surface layer up to 30 cm thick.
O
Muck: Highly decomposed organic material in which the original plant

H
parts are no more recognizable. Contains more mineral matter

SC
and is usually darker in color than peat.

C
Organic soil: A soil that contains a high percentage (>20%) organic matter
throughout the solum.
E
Parent material: The unconsolidated and more or less chemically weathered

mineral (or organic matter) from which the soil is developed by
N
PL
pedogenic processes.
U
Peat: Unconsolidated organic soil material consisting largely of

slightly or non-decomposed organic matter accumulated under
M
conditions of excessive moisture.

Ped: A unit of soil structure such as an aggregate, crumb, prism,
SA
block, or granule, formed by natural processes, in contrast with

a soil clod which is formed artificially.
Pedon: A three-dimensional body of soil with lateral dimensions large
enough to permit the study of horizon shapes and relations. Its
area ranges from 1 to 10 m2.
pF: The logarithm of the soil moisture tension expressed in
centimeters height of a column of water. Is an expression of the
available water in the soil. Critical pF levels are: pF = 1 (field
capacity) and pF = 4.2 (wilting point). The plant available
moisture is the water retained between these two tensions.
pH (soil): The negative logarithm of the hydrogen-ion activity of a soil.

The degree of acidity (or alkalinity) of a soil as determined by

means of a glass or other suitable electrode (or other indicator)
for a specified soil-water ratio (mostly 1: 1 or 1: 2.5).
Profile: A vertical section of a soil through all its horizons, extending
into the parent material. It is usually composed of an A-B-C
horizon sequence, or a fraction thereof.
Regolith: The unconsolidated mantle of weathered rock and soil material
on the earth’s surface; loose earth materials above solid rock
without any obvious sign of soil formation.
Soil association: A group of defined and named taxonomic soil units occurring
together in an individual and characteristic pattern over a
geographic region comparable to plant associations in many
ways.
Soil series: A lower unit of soil classification, e.g. a subdivision of a family,
consisting of soils that are similar in all major profile
characteristics.
S
Soil structure: LS The combination or arrangement of primary soil particles into
secondary particles, units or peds. These secondary units may
R
be, but usually are not, arranged in the profile in such a manner
as to give a distinctive characteristic pattern. The secondary
TE
O
units are characterized and classified on the basis of size, shape
and degree of distinctness into classes, types and grades,
-E
respectively.
AP
Soil survey: The systematic examination, description, classification and
mapping of soils in an area. Soils are usually classified in the
O
field according to obvious differences in profile characteristics.

H
Soil texture (or The relative proportions of the various soil particles.
SC
particle size
C
distribution):
Soil type: The lowest unit in the natural system of soil classification: a
E
subdivision of a soil series and consisting of or describing soils

that are alike in all characteristics including the texture of the A
N
PL
horizon. The term is also used in a more general context as a

U
kind of soil with specific characteristics.

Solum: The upper and most weathered part of the soil profile,
M
containing the A and B horizons.

Waterlogged: Saturated with water.
SA
Weathering: The process of physical and chemical changes produced in

rocks, at or near the earth’s surface, by atmospheric agents.
Bibliography
Baize, D. (2004). Petit Lexique de Pédologie. INRA Editions, Paris, 271p. [An extended explicative
dictionary on pedological terms in French, with an English-French index].
Bigham, J.M. and Ciolkosz, J. , eds. (1993). Soil Color. Soil Science Society of America Publication 31,
Madison, WI-USA, 159p. [A compilation of 9 papers dealing with the relation between soil color and
other soil properties].
Birkeland, P.W. (1979). Pedology, Weathering and Geomorphological Research. Oxford University
Press, London/New York, 285p. [A standard work on mineral weathering processes and soil formation].

Brady, N.C. (1984). The Nature and Properties of Soils. Ninth Edition. MacMillan Publishing Company
New York, 750p. [An in-depth overview of soil properties with a focus on their impact in field conditions
and agricultural applications; with an extended glossary on soil science terms].
Brown, J.R. (1987). Soil Testing: Sampling, Correlation, Calibration and Interpretation. Soil Science
Society of America Special Publication 21, Madison, WI-USA [A compilation of 12 articles, including
test procedures, interpretations and adapted methods for special soil types].
Duchaufour, Ph. (1998). Handbook of Pedology: Soils – Vegetation – Environment (translated by V.A.K.
Sharma). A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands and Brookfield, US, 264p. [An overview of soil
science in terms of properties and processes, with an extensive reference list focused on French and
German authors].
FAO (1990). Guidelines for Soil Description. Third Revised Edition. Soil Resources, Management and
Conservation Service, Land and Water Development Div., FAO Rome,70p. [A manual with all technical
terms used in the field description of soils].
FAO (2006); World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2006: A Framework for International
Classification, Correlation and Communication; FAO World Soil Resources Report 103, FAO, Rome,
128p [The most recent version explaining in full details the concept and application of this new
framework for worldwide soil classification].
S
Foth, H.D. (1990). Fundamentals of Soil Science. Eight Edition. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 360p.
LS
[A standard work on properties, soil forming processes and the classification of soils, with due attention
R
to plant nutrition and soil conservation; with an excellent glossary of soil science terms].
TE
Hellin, J. (2006). Better Land Husbandry: From Soil Conservation to Holistic Land Management.
O
Science Publishers, Enfield, New Hampshire, US, 309p. [A book focusing on the ecological aspects of
soils and their management in modern times, mainly concentrated on situations from Latin and South
-E
America].
AP
Lozet, J. and Mathieu, C. (1991). Dictionary of Soil Science. Second, Revised and Enlarged Edition. A.A.
Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 348p. [An excellent publication translated from French,
O
explaining the most common soil science terms; a revised French edition was published in 2002].
H
Munsell Color (1975). Munsell Soil Color Charts. Macbeth Div. of Kollmorgen Corp., Baltimore, USA
SC
[The color scale universally accepted as the standard for soil color determination].
C
Pansu, M., Gautheyrou, J. and Loyer, J-Y. (2001). Soil Analysis: Sampling, Instrumentation, Quality
Control. Translated by V.A.K. Sharma. A.A. Balkema, Lisse, The Netherlands, 489p. [A detailed
E
technical manual on the field sampling, laboratory analysis and equipment for the study of soil
properties].
N
PL
Reybold, W.U. and Petersen, G.W., eds. (1987). Soil Survey Techniques. Soil Science Society of America
Special Publication 20, Madison, WI-USA, 98p. [A compilation of 8 articles dealing with different
U
aspects of soil survey techniques, including the use of remote sensing and microcomputer techniques].
M
Soil Survey Staff (1951). Soil Survey Manual. US Dept. Agriculture Handbook 18, US Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC., 503p [A timeless reference book and the basis for soil survey
SA
techniques and related terminology worldwide].

USDA (1975). Soil Taxonomy: A Basic System of Soil Classification for Making and Interpreting Soil
Surveys. US Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Agricultural Handbook 436,
Washington, DC, 754p [Background document explaining the concept and structure of Soil Taxonomy;
the system has undergone several updates and modifications, see:
http://soils.usda.gov/technical/classification/ taxonomy].
WRB (2006). World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2006: A Framework for International
Classification, Correlation and Communication. IUSS/ISRIC/FAO, FAO World Soil Resources Report
103, FAO, Rome, 128p. [The most recent version explaining in full detail the concept and application of
this new framework for worldwide soil classification].

Biographical Sketch
Willy Verheye is an Emeritus Research Director at the National Science Foundation, Flanders, and a
former Professor in the Geography Department, University of Ghent, Belgium. He holds an MSc. in
Physical Geography (1961), a PhD. in soil science (1970) and a Post-Doctoral Degree in soil science and
land use planning (1980).
He has been active for more than thirty-five years, both in the academic world, as a professor/ research
director in soil science, land evaluation, and land use planning, and as a technical and scientific advisor
for rural development projects, especially in developing countries. His research has mainly focused on the
field characterization of soils and soil potentials and on the integration of socio-economic and
environmental aspects in rural land use planning. He was a technical and scientific advisor in more than
100 development projects for international (UNDP, FAO, World Bank, African and Asian Development
Banks, etc.) and national agencies, as well as for development companies and NGOs active in inter-
tropical regions.
S
LS
R
TE
O
-E
AP
O
H
SC
C
E
E
N
PL
U
M
SA

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LAND USE, LAND COVER AND SOIL SCIENCES – Vol.

VI – Soils and Soil Sciences - Willy Verheye

SOILS AND SOIL SCIENCES

land evaluation or soil and land management.

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

evolutionary nature is embodied in the universal definition of soil as:

biosphere, consisting of layers of unconsolidated mineral and/or organic constituents of

many physical, chemical, and biological properties and characteristics.

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

2. Soils and Soil Science

on runoff, erosion and sedimentation processes, and differential warming up of

interrelationships between the solid, liquid and gaseous soil components;

 Chemistry, concerned with the chemical constitution, chemical properties and

supply to plants; and

Soil science as a discipline is relatively young compared to other sciences like

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

applications and users (Figure 1):

 Pedology, focusing on the formation (pedogenesis) and development of soils as

laboratory observations as referred to above) and delineates the geographical

criteria may vary as a function of the objectives, most international classification

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

for land resource management and land use planning.

3. Soil Formation and Soil Forming Processes

water is no active agent to enhance chemical reactions. It is particularly active in deserts

weathering results generally in a broad breakdown of soil and rock components,

from H + and OH − ions from H 2 O ), hydration (addition of a water molecule to the

3.2. Soil Profile Formation and Horizon Development

Soil profile development is basically a re-arrangement of soil particles into soil

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

Humification - The process of transformation, i.e. decomposition of raw organic

of synthesis and building up of new molecules through microbial or physicochemical

Eluviation and illuviation - The process of removal of soil constituents in suspension or

textural differentiation, or leaching of soluble elements like salts.

Calcification and decalcification- The movement of soluble calcium carbonate in the

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

Podzolization - The process of extreme leaching of bases in an acid environment,

Lateritization (currently replaced by the connotations allitization and ferrallitization) -

Salinization - The process of accumulation of salts, such as sulfates or chlorides in the

form of a salty horizon. It is active under conditions of highly saline or brackish

capillary action from the groundwater. Desalinization is the removal, by leaching of

Alkalinization - A process involving the accumulation of sodium ions on the exchange

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

4. The Soil Profile

capital letters like O, A, E, B, C, R (Table 1). Subordinate distinctions within these

Beneath the O or A horizon, in some environments, there is a light-colored horizon

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

more soluble constituents under conditions of intensive weathering and leaching.

Figure 2: A typical soil profile developed over aeolian loam, Belgium

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

horizons can also be designated AB or AC if a more detailed subdivision is not possible

Symbol Layer/horizon description and corresponding horizons

H Layer dominated by organic material, formed from the accumulation of un-

*Histic epipedon: Surface horizon saturated for 30 or more consecutive

O Surface accumulation of organic material, consisting of un-decomposed or

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

concentration of organic matter and/ or sesquioxides translocated from E

*Oxic B horizon: Highly weathered subsurface horizon with low CE and

*Cambic B horizon: Subsurface horizon enough altered to eradicate most

primary carbonate. Has higher chroma or redder hue than underlying

as shown by mineral oxidation, accumulation of silica, carbonates, or more

soluble salts, and gleying.

Table 1: Soil horizon nomenclature and brief description of master horizons

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

Chemistry, concerned with the chemical constitution, chemical properties and

Pedology, focusing on the formation (pedogenesis) and development of soils as

a high content of at least partly un-decomposed organic matter;

a low bulk density, of the order of 0.20-0.30 g/cm3;

Colloidal humus particles are composed of C, N, H and O. They contain 3-

The colloidal surface of humus is negatively charged, but is pH dependent.