Movement Into and Out of Cells

Diffusion
 Diffusion is the movement of particles of a
substance from a high concentration to low
concentration.
 It requires no energy
 This process stops when concentrations are
equal.
 A partially/differentially/selectively permeable
membrane may or may not be present
 Active transport starts when both diffusion and
osmosis have stopped.
 There are two types of diffusion:
1.) Simple Diffusion
2.) Facilitated Diffusion
Simple Diffusion
 Is for oxygen, carbon dioxide etc.
Facilitated Diffusion
 It is a type of diffusion in which glucose, amino acids, different ions, polar substances etc. are
able to flow from high concentration to low concentration down the concentration gradient,
without the use of energy, but with the help of transport/carrier proteins or channel proteins.
 For amino acids and glucose
polar substances = carrier proteins
 For facilitation of ions
facilitation of ions = channel proteins
 Carrier proteins can change their shape whilst channel proteins are fixed in shape.
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 For active transport of any substance like water, ions, glucose, amino acids are by carrier
proteins + energy + ATP molecules are required to move from low to high concentration.
Rates of diffusion
Molecules and ions in liquids and gases move around
randomly using kinetic energy (energy from movement).
The speed with which a substance diffuses through a cell
wall or cell membrane will depend on temperature and many
other conditions including the distance it has to diffuse,
the difference between its concentration inside and
outside the cell, the size of its molecules or ions and the
surface area across which the diffusion is occurring.
1. Surface area
If 100 molecules diffuse through 1mm2 of a membrane in 1
minute, it is reasonable to suppose that an area of 2mm2
will allow twice as many through in the same time. Thus the
rate of diffusion into a cell will depend on the cell’s surface area. The greater the surface area, the
faster is the total diffusion. Cells which are involved in rapid absorption, such as those in the kidney
or the intestine, often have their ‘free’ surface membrane. formed into hundreds of tiny projections
called microvilli which increase the absorbing surface. The shape of a cell will also affect the surface
area. For example, the cell in (a) has a greater surface area than that in (b), even though they each
have the same volume.
2. Temperature
An increase in temperature causes an increase in the kinetic energy which molecules and ions possess.
This enables them to move faster, so the process of diffusion speeds up.
3. Concentration gradient
The bigger the difference in the concentration of a
substance on either side of a membrane, the faster it will
tend to diffuse. The difference is called a concentration
gradient or diffusion gradient (Figure). If a substance on
one side of a membrane is steadily removed, the diffusion
gradient is maintained. When oxygen molecules enter a
red blood cell they combine with a chemical (haemoglobin) which takes them out of solution. Thus the
concentration of free oxygen molecules inside the cell is kept very low and the diffusion gradient for
oxygen is maintained.
4. Distance
Cell membranes are all about the same thickness (approximately 0.007 µm) but plant cell walls vary in
their thickness and permeability. Generally speaking, the thicker the wall, the slower the rate of
diffusion. When oxygen diffuses from the alveoli of the lungs into red blood cells, it has to travel
through the cell membranes of the alveoli, the blood capillaries and the red blood cells in addition to
the cytoplasm of each cell. This increased distance slows down the diffusion rate.
5. Size of molecules or ions
In general, the larger the molecules or ions, the slower they diffuse. However, many ions and
molecules in solution attract water molecules around them (see p. 43) and so their effective size is
greatly increased. It may not be possible to predict the rate of diffusion from the molecular size
alone.

Controlled Diffusion
Although for any one substance, the rate of diffusion through a cell membrane depends partly on the
concentration gradient, the rate is often faster or slower than expected. Water diffuses more slowly
and amino acids diffuse more rapidly through a membrane than might be expected. In some cases this
is thought to happen because the ions or molecules can pass through the membrane only by means of
special pores. These pores may be few in number or they may be open or closed in different
conditions. In other cases, the movement of a substance may be speeded up by an enzyme working in
the cell membrane. So it seems that ‘simple passive’ diffusion, even of water molecules, may not be so
simple or so passive after all where cell membranes are concerned. When a molecule gets inside a cell
there are a great many structures and processes which may move it from where it enters to where it
is needed. Simple diffusion is unlikely to play a very significant part in this movement.

Experiment: Investigating How Surface Area Affects Diffusion

Method
1. Cut two cubes of Agar jelly, with sides of 1 cm
2. Cut one of the cubes into four smaller cubes, each with sides of 0.5 cm
3. Put the large cube into a test tube. Put the four other cubes into the other test
tube.
4. Add equal amount of dilute hydrochloric acid to each test tube, making sure all the
cubes are covered with acid.
5. Start the stopwatch. Time how many seconds it takes for the cubes in each test tube
become fully yellow.
Chemicals and Apparatus:
 A dish containing agar jelly (made with a little bit of weak alkali such as ammonium
hydroxide, and coloured with a dye called cresol red)
 A sharp knife to cut the jelly into pieces.
 Some plastic or blunt ended forceps (tweezers)
 A ruler to measure in mm
 Two large test tubes, or other large glass tubes, more than 1 cm in diameter.
 A stopwatch
 Some dilute hydrochloric acid

Osmosis
 The movement of water molecules from its high
concentration to a low concentration through a
partially permeable membrane, is called osmosis.
 For osmosis, the following requirements are
mandatory
1.) H2O molecules
2.) partially permeable membrane
3.) movement from high to low concentration

Q.) Explain, using the term water potential, how

fibrous roots absorb water. (3)
Ans.) Fibrous roots absorb water through osmosis
from high water potential to low water potential
through the partially permeable membrane, using its
root hair, from root hair cells.

Q.) The membranes of root hair cells contain

proteins for the absorption of ions. Describe how
root hair cells are adapted for the absorption of
ions. (3)
Ans.) Root hair cells are long and narrow and have a
greater surface area to volume ratio, for faster
absorption of ions. They are also full of
mitochondria, which provide them with energy, and
the proteins help in the diffusion or active
transport of ions.

Q.) Explain how water is absorbed by plant roots.

(3)
Ans.) Plant roots have root hair cells which absorb
water through osmosis. As the water moves from the large surface area down the water potential
gradient, through the partially permeable membrane.

Q.) Explain how water enters the roots of trees from soil. (3)
Ans.) Water enters roots of trees from soil through osmosis, down a water potential gradient, into
the root hair cells and through a partially permeable membrane.
 Osmosis in Animal Cells
Q.) What happens to animal cells when placed
in:
a. Dilute Solution (3)
When an animal cell is placed in a dilute solution,
water moves from outside the cell to inside the
cell by osmosis. Because there is more water
outside the cell than inside the cell, water
enters the cell from high water potential to low
water potential down the concentration
gradient, through the partially permeable
membrane. The animal cell swells up and bursts
because of the absence of cell wall. This
bursting of animal cells (in particular - dilute
solution) is called osmotic lysis.
b. Concentrated Solution (3)
When an animal cell is placed in a concentrated solution, water molecules diffuse out of the cell
through osmosis and become crenated. This is mainly due to concentrated solution outside the
cell and less inside. Water will go out from high water potential to low water potential, down the
concentration gradient, through the partially permeable cell membrane. Due to this the
cytoplasm loses most of its water and shrinks. Also, there is more water in the cell, than outside
the cell.
c. Isotonic Solution (3)
When an animal cell is placed in an isotonic solution, there will be an equal movement of water
molecules into and out of the cell, but no net movement. This is because the animal cell and the
isotonic solution have the same water potential. Thus the animal cell remains the same/normal.
This equal movement of water molecules between the animal cells and the isotonic solution
cannot be called osmosis because water molecules are not moving from high to low
concentration.

Osmosis in Plant Cells

Q.) What would happen to plant cells in:
a. Hypotonic Solution (3)
When a plant cell is placed in a dilute or hypotonic
solution, it gains water by osmosis. The vacuole of
the plant cell expands and exerts outward pressure.
This cell is called turgid cell and this condition is
called turgidity.
b. Hypertonic Solution (3)
A plant cell in a concentrated or hypertonic solution,
water from inside begins to move from inside to
outside the cell, from low water potential to high
water potential down the concentration gradient, through the partially permeable membrane, by
the process of osmosis. The cell wall is separated from the cytoplasm and vacuole as it shrinks
and moves away. This condition is called plasmolysis and such a cell is called a plasmolysed cell.
c. Isotonic Solution (3)
When a plant cell is placed in an isotonic solution, there will be an equal movement of water
molecules into and out of the cell, but no net movement. This is because the plant cell and the
isotonic solution have the same water potential. Thus the plant cell remains the same/normal.
 This equal movement of water molecules between the plant cells and the isotonic solution cannot
be called osmosis because water molecules are not moving from high to low concentration.

Q.) State the meaning of plasmolysis.

Plasmolysis is the shrinkage of the protoplasm of a plant cell by the loss of water (or osmosis) when
placed in a concentrated solution. Also known as flaccid or flaccidity.

Q.) An animal and plant cell were kept in a dilute salt solution. They were then transferred to
distilled water. Explain what will happen to each of these two cells when they are placed into distilled
water.
Ans.) after being placed in a distilled water solution water will move in through osmosis, down a water
potential gradient, through a partially permeable membrane. Both cells enlarge. The animal cell bursts
whilst the protoplasm of the plant cell increases in volume, thus it becomes turgid.

Practical Question: Theory Paper 2 – Experimental Analysis

A biologist added a few drops of concentrated salt solution to the cells on his slide and
took a photograph of the cells, as shown in the figure below.

a. With reference to the figure, describe the effect on the plant cells of adding a
concentrated salt solution. (3)
The protoplasm of the cell decreases in volume as the cell membrane pulls away
from the cell wall. The cells are plasmolysed or flaccid and lose turgor. Cell wall is
no longer pushed outwards.
b. Use the term water potential to explain the effect you have described. (3)
Salt solution has a lower water potential than the cell, thus water moves out of the
cell through osmosis, down a water potential gradient, through a partially
permeable membrane
Some plants can be grown in water using the technique of hydroponics. The roots are in
water and are supplied with the ions they need at the concentrations that support
maximum growth. Some ions can be absorbed by both diffusion and active transport .

A group of students investigated the effect of soaking small onion bulbs in different
concentrations of sodium chloride solution. They peeled off the outer papery leaves of the
onion bulbs and divided the onions into six batches, each with 10 onions.
The onions were surface dried with paper towels and weighed. The mean mass of the onions in
a.) (i) State two features of diffusion that do not apply to active transport. (2)
1 Diffusion is passive transport, hence it doesn’t require energy.
2 It also doesn’t require carrier or channel proteins for the movement of substances.
(ii) Explain how roots are adapted to absorb ions. (2)
Roots are adapted with root hair cells, which are long and narrow and have an
increased surface area to volume ratio, for the absorption of ions through active
transport, using carrier proteins.
A group of students investigated the effect of soaking small onion bulbs in different
concentrations of sodium chloride solution. They peeled off the outer papery leaves of
the onion bulbs and divided the onions into six batches, each with 10 onions.
The onions were surface dried with paper towels and weighed. The mean mass of the
onions in each batch was calculated. The onions were then left in sodium chloride
solutions for three hours.
After three hours the students surface dried the onions and weighed them again. Their
results are given in the table below

b.) (i) Calculate the percentage change in the mass of the onions that were in the most
concentrated solution of sodium chloride. Show your working. Write your answer in the
table.
(2)
183 - 175 = 8
(ii) Explain why the students calculated the percentage change in the mass of the
onions.
(2)
The start mass of the onions are different and not all are the same. The idea of
percentage change allows for a fair comparison to determine the water potential of
the onion.
c.) The students plotted a graph of the results shown in the table.
 (i) Complete the graph using your answer to b.(i) (2)
(ii) Using the graph estimate the concentration of sodium chloride solution that has
the same water potential as the onions.
44 ± 1 g dm-3
d.) Using the term water potential, explain why the onions: (4)
…gained mass when soaked in dilute solutions of sodium chloride
The onions gained mass by the movement of water through osmosis. Because the onion
has lower water potential and the solution has higher water potential, it gains mass.
…lost mass when soaked in concentrated solutions of sodium chloride
The onions lose mass by the movement of water through osmosis. Because in this
scenario the onion has higher water potential as compared to the solution, the onion
loses mass.

Solutions and Water Potential

Water Potential
 The water potential of a solution is a measure of whether it is likely to lose or gain water
molecules from another solution.
 A dilute solution, with its high proportion of free water molecules, is said to have a higher
water potential than a concentrated solution, because water will flow from the dilute to the
concentrated solution (from a high potential to a low potential).
 Pure water has the highest possible water potential because water molecules will flow from it
to any other aqueous solution, no matter how dilute.
 When adjacent cells contain sap with different water potentials, a water potential gradient is
created. Water will move from a cell with a higher water potential (a more dilute solution) to a
cell with a lower water potential (a more concentrated solution). This is thought to be one way
in which water moves from root hair cells through to the xylem of a plant root
Dilute Solution
 A solution which contains more water (solvent) and less solute than another solution is called
dilute solution.
 Also known as hypotonic solution.
Concentrated Solution
 Also known as hypertonic solution
 A solution which contains less water and more solute than another solution is called
concentrated solution.
Isotonic Solution
 Two solutions which contain the same amount of solvent/solute are called isotonic solutions.

Active Transport
 The movement of particles of a substance from low to high concentration against the
concentration gradient with the use of energy is called active transport.
 Active transport takes place when both diffusion and osmosis stop and the concentration of
particles of a substance become equal on both sides
 absorption of mineral ions or salts (Na+, K+, Mg+2) from soil takes place by the root hair cell
mainly by active transport.
 Absorption of glucose and amino acids take place from our digestive system to capillaries,
mainly by active transport using energy [ATP (adrenosine triphosphate) molecules].
 Active transport works by using carrier proteins embedded in the cell membrane to pick up
specific molecules and take them through the cell membrane against their concentration
gradient:
a.) Substance combines with carrier protein molecule in the cell membrane
 b.) Carrier transports substances across membrane using energy from respiration to give
them the kinetic energy needed to change shape and move the substance through the cell
membrane
c.) Substance released into cell

Experiment: Using Dialysis Tubing to Investigate Osmosis

Apparatus
 A dropper pipette
 A retort stand with boss
 Clamp
 Ruler
 Narrow glass tube (or capillary tube)
 Thread
 Dialysis tubing (also known as Visking Tubing)
 Water
 Sugar solution (at least two different concentrations or starch and amylase solution)
 stopwatch
Method
 Collect a piece of dialysis tubing. Put a few drops of water on it to soften it, and rub
it gently between your fingers until it opens. Tie one end of it around itself in a tight
knot.
 Use a dropper to fill the piece of tubing with the most concentrated sugar solution.
 Place a long narrow glass tube into the dialysis tubing. Use some strong thread to tie
the dialysis tubing very tightly around the glass tube.
 Place the dialysis tubing inside a beaker of water. Support the glass tube using a retort
stand, boss and clamp.
 Mark the level of liquid inside the glass tube.
 Every two minutes record the level of liquid inside the glass tube.
 You can now try repeating your experiment, but this time use a different
concentration of sugar solution. This is quite tricky to do, this is quite tricky to do,
because you will need to take your apparatus apart to change the sugar solution.
Record your results using the new sugar solution.
  On a large sheet of graph paper, draw a line graph for
your first set of results. Remember that the independent
variable goes on the x-axis, and the dependant variable
goes on the y-axis.
 For the second experiment with the more dilute solution,
plot another graph for the same pair of axes.
Questions
Q.) After 30 mins, what will be the: (reference to diagram 1)
a. Movement of water molecules
Both from inside to outside and outside to inside
b. Net movement of water molecules
More water molecules will move from outside to inside
(because there is higher water potential in the beaker than
in the Visking tubing).
Q.) Suppose there is no distilled water outside, but a slightly
less concentrated solution of sucrose solution outside the
tubing. After 30 mins, what will happen to the concentrations
of solutions:
a. In the beaker
Less dilute than before
b. In the dialysis tubing
Less concentrated than before
c. What is the level of water/solution?
It stays the same
d. What will happen to the level of solution in the beaker?
Increase
e. Why do we keep a prepared solution, in aa beaker,
covered with a lid?
It may become more concentrated than before, because
of evaporation of water from the beaker, and entry of
dust particles, etc.
f. To the sucrose solution
It becomes less concentrated than before (because of
gain/entry of water
g. In the beaker
It becomes less dilute than before
h. What, would happen if instead of sucrose we use glucose
Glucose have smaller molecules than sucrose, thus it can
pass easily through the partially permeable membrane.
Q.) Suppose there is 50% glucose solution inside the Visking
tubing, and only 10% glucose solution outside in the beaker.
What will be the concentration at equilibrium?
Ans.) 50+10 = 60
60 ÷ 2 = 30 %
At equilibrium state, the diffusion of glucose and osmosis of
water stop, but an equal movement of water and glucose
molecules continue into and out of the Visking tubing.