Transformer

In elect rical engineering, a transformer is a passive component t hat t ransfers elect rical
energy from one elect rical circuit t o anot her circuit , or mult iple circuit s. A varying current in
any coil of t he t ransformer produces a varying magnet ic flux in t he t ransformer's core, which
induces a varying elect romot ive force (EMF) across any ot her coils wound around t he same
core. Elect rical energy can be t ransferred bet ween separat e coils wit hout a met allic
(conduct ive) connect ion bet ween t he t wo circuit s. Faraday's law of induct ion, discovered in
1831, describes t he induced volt age effect in any coil due t o a changing magnet ic flux
encircled by t he coil.

An O-core transformer consisting of

two coils of copper wire wrapped
around a magnetic core

Transformers are used t o change AC volt age levels, such t ransformers being t ermed st ep-up
or st ep-down t ype t o increase or decrease volt age level, respect ively. Transformers can also
be used t o provide galvanic isolat ion bet ween circuit s as well as t o couple st ages of signal-
processing circuit s. Since t he invent ion of t he first const ant -pot ent ial t ransformer in 1885,
t ransformers have become essent ial for t he t ransmission, dist ribut ion, and ut ilizat ion of
alt ernat ing current elect ric power.[1] A wide range of t ransformer designs is encount ered in
elect ronic and elect ric power applicat ions. Transformers range in size from RF t ransformers
less t han a cubic cent imet er in volume, t o unit s weighing hundreds of t ons used t o
int erconnect t he power grid.

Principles

Ideal Ideal transformer equations

transforme By Faraday's law of induct ion:

r
(Eq. 1[a][2])
An ideal t ransformer is linear,
lossless and perfect ly
coupled. Perfect coupling
implies infinit ely high core
(Eq. 2)
magnet ic permeabilit y and
winding induct ance and zero
net magnet omot ive force
where is t he inst ant aneous volt age, is t he
(i.e. ipnp − is ns = 0).[3][c]
number of t urns in a winding, dΦ/dt is t he
derivat ive of t he magnet ic flux Φ t hrough one
t urn of t he winding over t ime (t), and subscript s P
and S denot es primary and secondary.

Combining t he rat io of eq. 1 & eq. 2:

Ideal transformer connected with

Turns ratio
source VP on primary and load
impedance Z L on secondary, (Eq. 3)
where 0 < Z L < ∞.

where for a st ep-up t ransformer a < 1 and for a

st ep-down t ransformer a > 1.[3]
 By t he law of conservat ion of energy, apparent ,
real and react ive power are each conserved in t he
input and out put :

(Eq. 4)
Ideal transformer and induction
law[d] where is apparent power and is current .

Combining Eq. 3 & Eq. 4 wit h t his endnot e [b][4]

gives t he ideal t ransformer ident it y:

(Eq. 5)

where is winding self-induct ance.

By Ohm's law and ideal t ransformer ident it y:

(Eq. 6)

(Eq. 7)

where is t he load impedance of t he

secondary circuit & is t he apparent load or
driving point impedance of t he primary circuit , t he
superscript denot ing referred t o t he primary.
A varying current in t he t ransformer's primary winding creat es a varying magnet ic flux in t he
t ransformer core, which is also encircled by t he secondary winding. This varying flux at t he
secondary winding induces a varying elect romot ive force or volt age in t he secondary winding.
This elect romagnet ic induct ion phenomenon is t he basis of t ransformer act ion and, in
accordance wit h Lenz's law, t he secondary current so produced creat es a flux equal and
opposit e t o t hat produced by t he primary winding.

The windings are wound around a core of infinit ely high magnet ic permeabilit y so t hat all of
t he magnet ic flux passes t hrough bot h t he primary and secondary windings. Wit h a volt age
source connect ed t o t he primary winding and a load connect ed t o t he secondary winding, t he
t ransformer current s flow in t he indicat ed direct ions and t he core magnet omot ive force
cancels t o zero.

According t o Faraday's law, since t he same magnet ic flux passes t hrough bot h t he primary and
secondary windings in an ideal t ransformer, a volt age is induced in each winding proport ional t o
it s number of t urns. The t ransformer winding volt age rat io is equal t o t he winding t urns rat io.[6]

An ideal t ransformer is a reasonable approximat ion for a t ypical commercial t ransformer, wit h
volt age rat io and winding t urns rat io bot h being inversely proport ional t o t he corresponding
current rat io.

The load impedance referred t o t he primary circuit is equal t o t he t urns rat io squared t imes t he
secondary circuit load impedance.[7]
Real transformer

Leakage flux of a transformer

Deviations from ideal transformer

The ideal t ransformer model neglect s many basic linear aspect s of real t ransformers,
including unavoidable losses and inefficiencies.[8]

(a) Core losses, collect ively called magnet izing current losses, consist ing of [9]

Hysteresis losses due to nonlinear

magnetic effects in the transformer
core, and
Eddy current losses due to joule
heating in the core that are
 proportional to the square of the
transformer's applied voltage.
(b) Unlike t he ideal model, t he windings in a real t ransformer have non-zero resist ances and
induct ances associat ed wit h:

Joule losses due to resistance in the

primary and secondary windings[9]
Leakage flux that escapes from the
core and passes through one winding
only resulting in primary and secondary
reactive impedance.
(c) similar t o an induct or, parasit ic capacit ance and self-resonance phenomenon due t o t he
elect ric field dist ribut ion. Three kinds of parasit ic capacit ance are usually considered and t he
closed-loop equat ions are provided[10]

Capacitance between adjacent turns in

any one layer;
Capacitance between adjacent layers;
Capacitance between the core and the
layer(s) adjacent to the core;
Inclusion of capacit ance int o t he t ransformer model is complicat ed, and is rarely at t empt ed;
t he 'real' t ransformer model's equivalent circuit shown below does not include parasit ic
capacit ance. However, t he capacit ance effect can be measured by comparing open-circuit
induct ance, i.e. t he induct ance of a primary winding when t he secondary circuit is open, t o a
short -circuit induct ance when t he secondary winding is short ed.

Leakage flux
The ideal t ransformer model assumes t hat all flux generat ed by t he primary winding links all
t he t urns of every winding, including it self. In pract ice, some flux t raverses pat hs t hat t ake it
out side t he windings.[11] Such flux is t ermed leakage flux, and result s in leakage induct ance in
series wit h t he mut ually coupled t ransformer windings.[12] Leakage flux result s in energy being
alt ernat ely st ored in and discharged from t he magnet ic fields wit h each cycle of t he power
supply. It is not direct ly a power loss, but result s in inferior volt age regulat ion, causing t he
secondary volt age not t o be direct ly proport ional t o t he primary volt age, part icularly under
heavy load.[11] Transformers are t herefore normally designed t o have very low leakage
induct ance.

In some applicat ions increased leakage is desired, and long magnet ic pat hs, air gaps, or
magnet ic bypass shunt s may deliberat ely be int roduced in a t ransformer design t o limit t he
short -circuit current it will supply.[12] Leaky t ransformers may be used t o supply loads t hat
exhibit negat ive resist ance, such as elect ric arcs, mercury- and sodium- vapor lamps and neon
signs or for safely handling loads t hat become periodically short -circuit ed such as elect ric arc
welders.[9]: 485

Air gaps are also used t o keep a t ransformer from sat urat ing, especially audio-frequency
t ransformers in circuit s t hat have a DC component flowing in t he windings.[13] A sat urable
react or exploit s sat urat ion of t he core t o cont rol alt ernat ing current .

Knowledge of leakage induct ance is also useful when t ransformers are operat ed in parallel. It
can be shown t hat if t he percent impedance [e] and associat ed winding leakage react ance-t o-
resist ance (X/R) rat io of t wo t ransformers were t he same, t he t ransformers would share t he
load power in proport ion t o t heir respect ive rat ings. However, t he impedance t olerances of
commercial t ransformers are significant . Also, t he impedance and X/R rat io of different
capacit y t ransformers t ends t o vary.[15]
Equivalent circuit
Referring t o t he diagram, a pract ical t ransformer's physical behavior may be represent ed by an
equivalent circuit model, which can incorporat e an ideal t ransformer.[16]

Winding joule losses and leakage react ance are represent ed by t he following series loop
impedances of t he model:

Primary winding: RP, XP

Secondary winding: RS, XS.
In normal course of circuit equivalence t ransformat ion, RS and XS are in pract ice usually
referred t o t he primary side by mult iplying t hese impedances by t he t urns rat io squared,
(NP/NS) 2 = a2.

Real transformer equivalent circuit

Core loss and react ance is represent ed by t he following shunt leg impedances of t he model:

Core or iron losses: RC

Magnetizing reactance: XM.
R C and XM are collect ively t ermed t he magnetizing branch of t he model.

Core losses are caused most ly by hyst eresis and eddy current effect s in t he core and are
proport ional t o t he square of t he core flux for operat ion at a given frequency.[9] : 142–143 The
finit e permeabilit y core requires a magnet izing current IM t o maint ain mut ual flux in t he core.
Magnet izing current is in phase wit h t he flux, t he relat ionship bet ween t he t wo being non-
linear due t o sat urat ion effect s. However, all impedances of t he equivalent circuit shown are
by definit ion linear and such non-linearit y effect s are not t ypically reflect ed in t ransformer
equivalent circuit s.[9]: 142 Wit h sinusoidal supply, core flux lags t he induced EMF by 90°. Wit h
open-circuit ed secondary winding, magnet izing branch current I0 equals t ransformer no-load
current .[16]

Instrument transformer, with polarity

dot and X1 markings on low-voltage
("LV") side terminal

The result ing model, t hough somet imes t ermed 'exact ' equivalent circuit based on linearit y
assumpt ions, ret ains a number of approximat ions.[16] Analysis may be simplified by assuming
t hat magnet izing branch impedance is relat ively high and relocat ing t he branch t o t he left of
t he primary impedances. This int roduces error but allows combinat ion of primary and referred
secondary resist ances and react ance by simple summat ion as t wo series impedances.

Transformer equivalent circuit impedance and t ransformer rat io paramet ers can be derived
from t he following t est s: open-circuit t est , short -circuit t est , winding resist ance t est , and
t ransformer rat io t est .

Transformer EMF equation

If t he flux in t he core is purely sinusoidal, t he relat ionship for eit her winding bet ween it s rms
voltage Erms of t he winding, and t he supply frequency f, number of t urns N, core cross-
sect ional area A in m2 and peak magnet ic flux densit y Bpeak in Wb/m2 or T (t esla) is given by
t he universal EMF equat ion:[9]
Polarity
A dot convent ion is oft en used in t ransformer circuit diagrams, nameplat es or t erminal
markings t o define t he relat ive polarit y of t ransformer windings. Posit ively increasing
inst ant aneous current ent ering t he primary winding's 'dot ' end induces posit ive polarit y
volt age exit ing t he secondary winding's 'dot ' end. Three-phase t ransformers used in elect ric
power syst ems will have a nameplat e t hat indicat e t he phase relat ionships bet ween t heir
t erminals. This may be in t he form of a phasor diagram, or using an alpha-numeric code t o
show t he t ype of int ernal connect ion (wye or delt a) for each winding.

Effect of frequency
The EMF of a t ransformer at a given flux increases wit h frequency.[9] By operat ing at higher
frequencies, t ransformers can be physically more compact because a given core is able t o
t ransfer more power wit hout reaching sat urat ion and fewer t urns are needed t o achieve t he
same impedance. However, propert ies such as core loss and conduct or skin effect also
increase wit h frequency. Aircraft and milit ary equipment employ 400 Hz power supplies which
reduce core and winding weight .[17] Conversely, frequencies used for some railway
elect rificat ion syst ems were much lower (e.g. 16.7 Hz and 25 Hz) t han normal ut ilit y
frequencies (50–60 Hz) for hist orical reasons concerned mainly wit h t he limit at ions of early
elect ric t ract ion mot ors. Consequent ly, t he t ransformers used t o st ep-down t he high
overhead line volt ages were much larger and heavier for t he same power rat ing t han t hose
required for t he higher frequencies.
 Power transformer overexcitation
condition caused by decreased
frequency; flux (green), iron core's
magnetic characteristics (red) and
magnetizing current (blue).

Operat ion of a t ransformer at it s designed volt age but at a higher frequency t han int ended
will lead t o reduced magnet izing current . At a lower frequency, t he magnet izing current will
increase. Operat ion of a large t ransformer at ot her t han it s design frequency may require
assessment of volt ages, losses, and cooling t o est ablish if safe operat ion is pract ical.
Transformers may require prot ect ive relays t o prot ect t he t ransformer from overvolt age at
higher t han rat ed frequency.

One example is in t ract ion t ransformers used for elect ric mult iple unit and high-speed t rain
service operat ing across regions wit h different elect rical st andards. The convert er equipment
and t ract ion t ransformers have t o accommodat e different input frequencies and volt age
(ranging from as high as 50 Hz down t o 16.7 Hz and rat ed up t o 25 kV).

At much higher frequencies t he t ransformer core size required drops dramat ically: a physically
small t ransformer can handle power levels t hat would require a massive iron core at mains
frequency. The development of swit ching power semiconduct or devices made swit ch-mode
power supplies viable, t o generat e a high frequency, t hen change t he volt age level wit h a
small t ransformer.

Transformers for higher frequency applicat ions such as SMPS t ypically use core mat erials
wit h much lower hyst eresis and eddy-current losses t han t hose for 50/60 Hz. Primary
examples are iron-powder and ferrit e cores. The lower frequency-dependant losses of t hese
cores oft en is at t he expense of flux densit y at sat urat ion. For inst ance, ferrit e sat urat ion
occurs at a subst ant ially lower flux densit y t han laminat ed iron.

Large power t ransformers are vulnerable t o insulat ion failure due t o t ransient volt ages wit h
high-frequency component s, such as caused in swit ching or by light ning.
Energy losses
Transformer energy losses are dominat ed by winding and core losses. Transformers'
efficiency t ends t o improve wit h increasing t ransformer capacit y.[18] The efficiency of t ypical
dist ribut ion t ransformers is bet ween about 98 and 99 percent .[18][19]

As t ransformer losses vary wit h load, it is oft en useful t o t abulat e no-load loss, full-load loss,
half-load loss, and so on. Hyst eresis and eddy current losses are const ant at all load levels
and dominat e at no load, while winding loss increases as load increases. The no-load loss can
be significant , so t hat even an idle t ransformer const it ut es a drain on t he elect rical supply.
Designing energy efficient t ransformers for lower loss requires a larger core, good-qualit y
silicon st eel, or even amorphous st eel for t he core and t hicker wire, increasing init ial cost . The
choice of const ruct ion represent s a t rade-off bet ween init ial cost and operat ing cost .[20]

Transformer losses arise from:

Winding joule losses

Current flowing through a winding's
conductor causes joule heating due to
the resistance of the wire. As
frequency increases, skin effect and
proximity effect causes the winding's
resistance and, hence, losses to
increase.
Core losses
Hysteresis losses
Each time the magnetic field is
reversed, a small amount of energy
is lost due to hysteresis within the
core, caused by motion of the
magnetic domains within the steel.
According to Steinmetz's formula,
the heat energy due to hysteresis is
given by
and,

hysteresis loss is thus given by

where, f is the frequency, η is the

hysteresis coefficient and βmax is the
maximum flux density, the empirical
exponent of which varies from about
1.4 to 1.8 but is often given as 1.6
for iron.[20] For more detailed
analysis, see Magnetic core and
Steinmetz's equation.
Eddy current losses
Eddy currents are induced in the
conductive metal transformer core
by the changing magnetic field, and
this current flowing through the
resistance of the iron dissipates
energy as heat in the core. The eddy
current loss is a complex function of
the square of supply frequency and
inverse square of the material
thickness.[20] Eddy current losses
can be reduced by making the core
of a stack of laminations (thin
 plates) electrically insulated from
each other, rather than a solid block;
all transformers operating at low
frequencies use laminated or similar
cores.

Magnetostriction related transformer

hum
Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic
material, such as the core, causes it to
physically expand and contract slightly
with each cycle of the magnetic field,
an effect known as magnetostriction,
the frictional energy of which produces
an audible noise known as mains hum
or "transformer hum".[21] This
transformer hum is especially
objectionable in transformers supplied
at power frequencies and in high-
frequency flyback transformers
associated with television CRTs.
Stray losses
Leakage inductance is by itself largely
lossless, since energy supplied to its
magnetic fields is returned to the
supply with the next half-cycle.
However, any leakage flux that
intercepts nearby conductive materials
such as the transformer's support
structure will give rise to eddy currents
and be converted to heat.[22]
Radiative
There are also radiative losses due to
the oscillating magnetic field but these
are usually small.
Mechanical vibration and audible noise
transmission
In addition to magnetostriction, the
alternating magnetic field causes
fluctuating forces between the primary
and secondary windings. This energy
incites vibration transmission in
interconnected metalwork, thus
amplifying audible transformer hum.[23]
Construction

Cores

Core for m = c ore type; shell for m

= shell type

Closed-core t ransformers are const ruct ed in 'core form' or 'shell form'. When windings
surround t he core, t he t ransformer is core form; when windings are surrounded by t he core,
t he t ransformer is shell form.[24] Shell form design may be more prevalent t han core form
design for dist ribut ion t ransformer applicat ions due t o t he relat ive ease in st acking t he core
around winding coils.[24] Core form design t ends t o, as a general rule, be more economical, and
t herefore more prevalent , t han shell form design for high volt age power t ransformer
applicat ions at t he lower end of t heir volt age and power rat ing ranges (less t han or equal t o,
nominally, 230 kV or 75 MVA). At higher volt age and power rat ings, shell form t ransformers
t end t o be more prevalent .[24][25][26] Shell form design t ends t o be preferred for ext ra-high
volt age and higher MVA applicat ions because, t hough more labor-int ensive t o manufact ure,
shell form t ransformers are charact erized as having inherent ly bet t er kVA-t o-weight rat io,
bet t er short -circuit st rengt h charact erist ics and higher immunit y t o t ransit damage.[26]
Laminated steel cores

Shell type transformer with laminated

core showing edges of laminations at
the top of the photo

Interleaved E-I transformer

laminations showing air gap and flux
paths

Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies t ypically have cores made of high
permeabilit y silicon st eel.[27] The st eel has a permeabilit y many t imes t hat of free space and
t he core t hus serves t o great ly reduce t he magnet izing current and confine t he flux t o a pat h
which closely couples t he windings.[28] Early t ransformer developers soon realized t hat cores
const ruct ed from solid iron result ed in prohibit ive eddy current losses, and t heir designs
mit igat ed t his effect wit h cores consist ing of bundles of insulat ed iron wires.[29] Lat er
designs const ruct ed t he core by st acking layers of t hin st eel laminat ions, a principle t hat has
remained in use. Each laminat ion is insulat ed from it s neighbors by a t hin non-conduct ing layer
of insulat ion.[30] The t ransformer universal EMF equat ion can be used t o calculat e t he core
cross-sect ional area for a preferred level of magnet ic flux.[9]

The effect of laminat ions is t o confine eddy current s t o highly ellipt ical pat hs t hat enclose
lit t le flux, and so reduce t heir magnit ude. Thinner laminat ions reduce losses,[27] but are more
laborious and expensive t o const ruct .[31] Thin laminat ions are generally used on high-
frequency t ransformers, wit h some of very t hin st eel laminat ions able t o operat e up t o
10 kHz.
 Laminating the core greatly
reduces eddy-current losses

One common design of laminat ed core is made from int erleaved st acks of E-shaped st eel
sheet s capped wit h I-shaped pieces, leading t o it s name of E-I transformer .[31] Such a
design t ends t o exhibit more losses, but is very economical t o manufact ure. The cut -core or
C-core t ype is made by winding a st eel st rip around a rect angular form and t hen bonding t he
layers t oget her. It is t hen cut in t wo, forming t wo C shapes, and t he core assembled by
binding t he t wo C halves t oget her wit h a st eel st rap.[31] They have t he advant age t hat t he
flux is always orient ed parallel t o t he met al grains, reducing reluct ance.

A st eel core's remanence means t hat it ret ains a st at ic magnet ic field when power is
removed. When power is t hen reapplied, t he residual field will cause a high inrush current unt il
t he effect of t he remaining magnet ism is reduced, usually aft er a few cycles of t he applied
AC waveform.[32] Overcurrent prot ect ion devices such as fuses must be select ed t o allow
t his harmless inrush t o pass.

On t ransformers connect ed t o long, overhead power t ransmission lines, induced current s due
t o geomagnet ic dist urbances during solar st orms can cause sat urat ion of t he core and
operat ion of t ransformer prot ect ion devices.[33]

Dist ribut ion t ransformers can achieve low no-load losses by using cores made wit h low-loss
high-permeabilit y silicon st eel or amorphous (non-cryst alline) met al alloy. The higher init ial
cost of t he core mat erial is offset over t he life of t he t ransformer by it s lower losses at light
load.[34]

Solid cores
Powdered iron cores are used in circuit s such as swit ch-mode power supplies t hat operat e
above mains frequencies and up t o a few t ens of kilohert z. These mat erials combine high
magnet ic permeabilit y wit h high bulk elect rical resist ivit y. For frequencies ext ending beyond
t he VHF band, cores made from non-conduct ive magnet ic ceramic mat erials called ferrit es
are common.[31] Some radio-frequency t ransformers also have movable cores (somet imes
called 'slugs') which allow adjust ment of t he coupling coefficient (and bandwidt h) of t uned
radio-frequency circuit s.

Toroidal cores

Small toroidal core transformer

Toroidal t ransformers are built around a ring-shaped core, which, depending on operat ing
frequency, is made from a long st rip of silicon st eel or permalloy wound int o a coil, powdered
iron, or ferrit e.[35] A st rip const ruct ion ensures t hat t he grain boundaries are opt imally aligned,
improving t he t ransformer's efficiency by reducing t he core's reluct ance. The closed ring
shape eliminat es air gaps inherent in t he const ruct ion of an E-I core.[9] : 485 The cross-sect ion
of t he ring is usually square or rect angular, but more expensive cores wit h circular cross-
sect ions are also available. The primary and secondary coils are oft en wound concent rically t o
cover t he ent ire surface of t he core. This minimizes t he lengt h of wire needed and provides
screening t o minimize t he core's magnet ic field from generat ing elect romagnet ic
int erference.

Toroidal t ransformers are more efficient t han t he cheaper laminat ed E-I t ypes for a similar
power level. Ot her advant ages compared t o E-I t ypes, include smaller size (about half), lower
weight (about half), less mechanical hum (making t hem superior in audio amplifiers), lower
ext erior magnet ic field (about one t ent h), low off-load losses (making t hem more efficient in
st andby circuit s), single-bolt mount ing, and great er choice of shapes. The main disadvant ages
are higher cost and limit ed power capacit y (see Classificat ion paramet ers below). Because of
t he lack of a residual gap in t he magnet ic pat h, t oroidal t ransformers also t end t o exhibit
higher inrush current , compared t o laminat ed E-I t ypes.

Ferrit e t oroidal cores are used at higher frequencies, t ypically bet ween a few t ens of
kilohert z t o hundreds of megahert z, t o reduce losses, physical size, and weight of induct ive
component s. A drawback of t oroidal t ransformer const ruct ion is t he higher labor cost of
winding. This is because it is necessary t o pass t he ent ire lengt h of a coil winding t hrough t he
core apert ure each t ime a single t urn is added t o t he coil. As a consequence, t oroidal
t ransformers rat ed more t han a few kVA are uncommon. Relat ively few t oroids are offered
wit h power rat ings above 10 kVA, and pract ically none above 25 kVA. Small dist ribut ion
t ransformers may achieve some of t he benefit s of a t oroidal core by split t ing it and forcing it
open, t hen insert ing a bobbin cont aining primary and secondary windings.[36]

Air cores
A t ransformer can be produced by placing t he windings near each ot her, an arrangement
t ermed an "air-core" t ransformer. An air-core t ransformer eliminat es loss due t o hyst eresis in
t he core mat erial.[12] The magnet izing induct ance is drast ically reduced by t he lack of a
magnet ic core, result ing in large magnet izing current s and losses if used at low frequencies.
Air-core t ransformers are unsuit able for use in power dist ribut ion,[12] but are frequent ly
employed in radio-frequency applicat ions.[37] Air cores are also used for resonant t ransformers
such as Tesla coils, where t hey can achieve reasonably low loss despit e t he low magnet izing
induct ance.

Windings

Windings are usually arranged

concentrically to minimize flux
leakage.
 Cut view through transformer
windings. Legend:
White : Air, liquid or other insulating
medium
Green spiral : Grain oriented silicon
steel
Blac k: Primary winding
Red : Secondary winding

The elect rical conduct or used for t he windings depends upon t he applicat ion, but in all cases
t he individual t urns must be elect rically insulat ed from each ot her t o ensure t hat t he current
t ravels t hroughout every t urn. For small t ransformers, in which current s are low and t he
pot ent ial difference bet ween adjacent t urns is small, t he coils are oft en wound from
enamelled magnet wire. Larger power t ransformers may be wound wit h copper rect angular
st rip conduct ors insulat ed by oil-impregnat ed paper and blocks of pressboard.[38]

High-frequency t ransformers operat ing in t he t ens t o hundreds of kilohert z oft en have

windings made of braided Lit z wire t o minimize t he skin-effect and proximit y effect losses.[39]
Large power t ransformers use mult iple-st randed conduct ors as well, since even at low power
frequencies non-uniform dist ribut ion of current would ot herwise exist in high-current
windings.[38] Each st rand is individually insulat ed, and t he st rands are arranged so t hat at
cert ain point s in t he winding, or t hroughout t he whole winding, each port ion occupies different
relat ive posit ions in t he complet e conduct or. The t ransposit ion equalizes t he current flowing
in each st rand of t he conduct or, and reduces eddy current losses in t he winding it self. The
st randed conduct or is also more flexible t han a solid conduct or of similar size, aiding
manufact ure.[38]

The windings of signal t ransformers minimize leakage induct ance and st ray capacit ance t o
improve high-frequency response. Coils are split int o sect ions, and t hose sect ions int erleaved
bet ween t he sect ions of t he ot her winding.

Power-frequency t ransformers may have taps at int ermediat e point s on t he winding, usually
on t he higher volt age winding side, for volt age adjust ment . Taps may be manually
reconnect ed, or a manual or aut omat ic swit ch may be provided for changing t aps. Aut omat ic
on-load t ap changers are used in elect ric power t ransmission or dist ribut ion, on equipment
such as arc furnace t ransformers, or for aut omat ic volt age regulat ors for sensit ive loads.
Audio-frequency t ransformers, used for t he dist ribut ion of audio t o public address
loudspeakers, have t aps t o allow adjust ment of impedance t o each speaker. A cent er-t apped
t ransformer is oft en used in t he out put st age of an audio power amplifier in a push-pull circuit .
Modulat ion t ransformers in AM t ransmit t ers are very similar.

Cooling

Cutaway view of liquid-

immersed transformer. The
conservator (reservoir) at top
provides liquid-to-
atmosphere isolation as
coolant level and
temperature changes. The
walls and fins provide
required heat dissipation.

It is a rule of t humb t hat t he life expect ancy of elect rical insulat ion is halved for about every
7 °C t o 10 °C increase in operat ing t emperat ure (an inst ance of t he applicat ion of t he
Arrhenius equat ion).[40]

Small dry-t ype and liquid-immersed t ransformers are oft en self-cooled by nat ural convect ion
and radiat ion heat dissipat ion. As power rat ings increase, t ransformers are oft en cooled by
forced-air cooling, forced-oil cooling, wat er-cooling, or combinat ions of t hese.[41] Large
t ransformers are filled wit h t ransformer oil t hat bot h cools and insulat es t he windings.[42]
Transformer oil is oft en a highly refined mineral oil t hat cools t he windings and insulat ion by
circulat ing wit hin t he t ransformer t ank. The mineral oil and paper insulat ion syst em has been
ext ensively st udied and used for more t han 100 years. It is est imat ed t hat 50% of power
t ransformers will survive 50 years of use, t hat t he average age of failure of power
t ransformers is about 10 t o 15 years, and t hat about 30% of power t ransformer failures are
due t o insulat ion and overloading failures.[43][44] Prolonged operat ion at elevat ed t emperat ure
degrades insulat ing propert ies of winding insulat ion and dielect ric coolant , which not only
short ens t ransformer life but can ult imat ely lead t o cat ast rophic t ransformer failure.[40] Wit h
a great body of empirical st udy as a guide, t ransformer oil t est ing including dissolved gas
analysis provides valuable maint enance informat ion.

Building regulat ions in many jurisdict ions require indoor liquid-filled t ransformers t o eit her use
dielect ric fluids t hat are less flammable t han oil, or be inst alled in fire-resist ant rooms.[18] Air-
cooled dry t ransformers can be more economical where t hey eliminat e t he cost of a fire-
resist ant t ransformer room.

The t ank of liquid-filled t ransformers oft en has radiat ors t hrough which t he liquid coolant
circulat es by nat ural convect ion or fins. Some large t ransformers employ elect ric fans for
forced-air cooling, pumps for forced-liquid cooling, or have heat exchangers for wat er-
cooling.[42] An oil-immersed t ransformer may be equipped wit h a Buchholz relay, which,
depending on severit y of gas accumulat ion due t o int ernal arcing, is used t o eit her alarm or
de-energize t he t ransformer.[32] Oil-immersed t ransformer inst allat ions usually include fire
prot ect ion measures such as walls, oil cont ainment , and fire-suppression sprinkler syst ems.

Polychlorinat ed biphenyls (PCBs) have propert ies t hat once favored t heir use as a dielect ric
coolant , t hough concerns over t heir environment al persist ence led t o a widespread ban on
t heir use.[45] Today, non-t oxic, st able silicone-based oils, or fluorinat ed hydrocarbons may be
used where t he expense of a fire-resist ant liquid offset s addit ional building cost for a
t ransformer vault .[18][46] However, t he long life span of t ransformers can mean t hat t he
pot ent ial for exposure can be high long aft er banning.[47]

Some t ransformers are gas-insulat ed. Their windings are enclosed in sealed, pressurized t anks
and oft en cooled by nit rogen or sulfur hexafluoride gas.[46]

Experiment al power t ransformers in t he 500-t o-1,000 kVA range have been built wit h liquid
nit rogen or helium cooled superconduct ing windings, which eliminat es winding losses wit hout
affect ing core losses.[48][49]
Insulation

Substation transformer undergoing

testing.

Insulat ion must be provided bet ween t he individual t urns of t he windings, bet ween t he
windings, bet ween windings and core, and at t he t erminals of t he winding.

Int er-t urn insulat ion of small t ransformers may be a layer of insulat ing varnish on t he wire.
Layer of paper or polymer films may be insert ed bet ween layers of windings, and bet ween
primary and secondary windings. A t ransformer may be coat ed or dipped in a polymer resin t o
improve t he st rengt h of windings and prot ect t hem from moist ure or corrosion. The resin may
be impregnat ed int o t he winding insulat ion using combinat ions of vacuum and pressure during
t he coat ing process, eliminat ing all air voids in t he winding. In t he limit , t he ent ire coil may be
placed in a mold, and resin cast around it as a solid block, encapsulat ing t he windings.[50]

Large oil-filled power t ransformers use windings wrapped wit h insulat ing paper, which is
impregnat ed wit h oil during assembly of t he t ransformer. Oil-filled t ransformers use highly
refined mineral oil t o insulat e and cool t he windings and core. Const ruct ion of oil-filled
t ransformers requires t hat t he insulat ion covering t he windings be t horoughly dried of residual
moist ure before t he oil is int roduced. Drying may be done by circulat ing hot air around t he
core, by circulat ing ext ernally heat ed t ransformer oil, or by vapor-phase drying (VPD) where an
evaporat ed solvent t ransfers heat by condensat ion on t he coil and core. For small
t ransformers, resist ance heat ing by inject ion of current int o t he windings is used.
Bushings
Larger t ransformers are provided wit h high-volt age insulat ed bushings made of polymers or
porcelain. A large bushing can be a complex st ruct ure since it must provide careful cont rol of
t he elect ric field gradient wit hout let t ing t he t ransformer leak oil.[51]

Classification parameters

An electrical substation in Melbourne,

Australia showing three of five 220 kV
– 66 kV transformers, each with a
capacity of 150 MVA

Camouflaged transformer in Langley

City, Canada

Transformers can be classified in many ways, such as t he following:

Power rating: From a fraction of a volt-

ampere (VA) to over a thousand MVA.
Duty of a transformer: Continuous,
short-time, intermittent, periodic,
varying.
Frequency range: Power-frequency,
audio-frequency, or radio-frequency.
Voltage class: From a few volts to
hundreds of kilovolts.
Cooling type: Dry or liquid-immersed;
self-cooled, forced air-cooled;forced
oil-cooled, water-cooled.
Application: power supply, impedance
matching, output voltage and current
stabilizer, pulse, circuit isolation, power
distribution, rectifier, arc furnace,
amplifier output, etc..
Basic magnetic form: Core form, shell
form, concentric, sandwich.
Constant-potential transformer
descriptor: Step-up, step-down,
isolation.
General winding configuration: By IEC
vector group, two-winding
combinations of the phase
designations delta, wye or star, and
zigzag; autotransformer, Scott-T
Rectifier phase-shift winding
configuration: 2-winding, 6-pulse; 3-
winding, 12-pulse; . . ., n-winding,
[n − 1]·6-pulse; polygon; etc..
Applications

Transformer at the Limestone

Generating Station in Manitoba,
Canada

Various specific elect rical applicat ion designs require a variet y of t ransformer t ypes. Alt hough
t hey all share t he basic charact erist ic t ransformer principles, t hey are cust omized in
const ruct ion or elect rical propert ies for cert ain inst allat ion requirement s or circuit condit ions.

In elect ric power t ransmission, t ransformers allow t ransmission of elect ric power at high
volt ages, which reduces t he loss due t o heat ing of t he wires. This allows generat ing plant s t o
be locat ed economically at a dist ance from elect rical consumers.[52] All but a t iny fract ion of
t he world's elect rical power has passed t hrough a series of t ransformers by t he t ime it
reaches t he consumer.[22]

In many elect ronic devices, a t ransformer is used t o convert volt age from t he dist ribut ion
wiring t o convenient values for t he circuit requirement s, eit her direct ly at t he power line
frequency or t hrough a swit ch mode power supply.

Signal and audio t ransformers are used t o couple st ages of amplifiers and t o mat ch devices
such as microphones and record players t o t he input of amplifiers. Audio t ransformers allowed
t elephone circuit s t o carry on a t wo-way conversat ion over a single pair of wires. A balun
t ransformer convert s a signal t hat is referenced t o ground t o a signal t hat has balanced
volt ages t o ground, such as bet ween ext ernal cables and int ernal circuit s. Isolat ion
t ransformers prevent leakage of current int o t he secondary circuit and are used in medical
equipment and at const ruct ion sit es. Resonant t ransformers are used for coupling bet ween
st ages of radio receivers, or in high-volt age Tesla coils.
 Schematic of a large oil-filled power transformer 1. Tank 2. Lid 3.
Conservator tank 4. Oil level indicator 5. Buchholz relay for detecting gas
bubbles after an internal fault 6. Piping 7. Tap changer 8. Drive motor for tap
changer 9. Drive shaft for tap changer 10. High voltage (HV) bushing 11.
High voltage bushing current transformers 12. Low voltage (LV) bushing 13.
Low voltage current transformers 14. Bushing voltage-transformer for
metering 15. Core 16. Yoke of the core 17. Limbs connect the yokes and hold
them up 18. Coils 19. Internal wiring between coils and tapchanger 20. Oil
release valve 21. Vacuum valve

History

Discovery of induction

Faraday's experiment with induction

between coils of wire[53]

Elect romagnet ic induct ion, t he principle of t he operat ion of t he t ransformer, was discovered
independent ly by Michael Faraday in 1831 and Joseph Henry in 1832.[54][55][56][57] Only Faraday
furt hered his experiment s t o t he point of working out t he equat ion describing t he relat ionship
bet ween EMF and magnet ic flux now known as Faraday's law of induct ion:

where is t he magnit ude of t he EMF in volt s and ΦB is t he magnet ic flux t hrough t he circuit
in webers.[58]

Faraday performed early experiment s on induct ion bet ween coils of wire, including winding a
pair of coils around an iron ring, t hus creat ing t he first t oroidal closed-core t ransformer.[57][59]
However he only applied individual pulses of current t o his t ransformer, and never discovered
t he relat ion bet ween t he t urns rat io and EMF in t he windings.

Induction coil, 1900, Bremerhaven,

Germany

Induction coils

Faraday's ring transformer

The first t ype of t ransformer t o see wide use was t he induct ion coil, invent ed by Irish-
Cat holic Rev. Nicholas Callan of Maynoot h College, Ireland in 1836.[57] He was one of t he first
researchers t o realize t he more t urns t he secondary winding has in relat ion t o t he primary
winding, t he larger t he induced secondary EMF will be. Induct ion coils evolved from scient ist s'
and invent ors' effort s t o get higher volt ages from bat t eries. Since bat t eries produce direct
current (DC) rat her t han AC, induct ion coils relied upon vibrat ing elect rical cont act s t hat
regularly int errupt ed t he current in t he primary t o creat e t he flux changes necessary for
induct ion. Bet ween t he 1830s and t he 1870s, effort s t o build bet t er induct ion coils, most ly
by t rial and error, slowly revealed t he basic principles of t ransformers.

First alternating current

transformers
By t he 1870s, efficient generat ors producing alt ernat ing current (AC) were available, and it
was found AC could power an induct ion coil direct ly, wit hout an int errupt er.

In 1876, Russian engineer Pavel Yablochkov invent ed a light ing syst em based on a set of
induct ion coils where t he primary windings were connect ed t o a source of AC. The secondary
windings could be connect ed t o several 'elect ric candles' (arc lamps) of his own design. The
coils Yablochkov employed funct ioned essent ially as t ransformers.[60]

In 1878, t he Ganz fact ory, Budapest , Hungary, began producing equipment for elect ric light ing
and, by 1883, had inst alled over fift y syst ems in Aust ria-Hungary. Their AC syst ems used arc
and incandescent lamps, generat ors, and ot her equipment .[57][61]

In 1882, Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs first exhibit ed a device wit h an init ially widely
crit icized laminat ed plat e open iron core called a 'secondary generat or' in London, t hen sold
t he idea t o t he West inghouse company in t he Unit ed St at es in 1886.[29] They also exhibit ed
t he invent ion in Turin, It aly in 1884, where it was highly successful and adopt ed for an elect ric
light ing syst em.[62] Their device used a fixed 1:1 rat io t o supply a series circuit for t he
ut ilizat ion load (lamps). The volt age of t heir syst em was cont rolled by pushing in and pulling
out it s open iron core.[63]
Early series circuit transformer
distribution
Induct ion coils wit h open magnet ic circuit s are inefficient at t ransferring power t o loads. Unt il
about 1880, t he paradigm for AC power t ransmission from a high volt age supply t o a low
volt age load was a series circuit . Open-core t ransformers wit h a rat io near 1:1 were
connect ed wit h t heir primaries in series t o allow use of a high volt age for t ransmission while
present ing a low volt age t o t he lamps. The inherent flaw in t his met hod was t hat t urning off a
single lamp (or ot her elect ric device) affect ed t he volt age supplied t o all ot hers on t he same
circuit . Many adjust able t ransformer designs were int roduced t o compensat e for t his
problemat ic charact erist ic of t he series circuit , including t hose employing met hods of
adjust ing t he core or bypassing t he magnet ic flux around part of a coil.[62] Efficient , pract ical
t ransformer designs did not appear unt il t he 1880s, but wit hin a decade, t he t ransformer
would be inst rument al in t he war of t he current s, and in seeing AC dist ribut ion syst ems
t riumph over t heir DC count erpart s, a posit ion in which t hey have remained dominant ever
since.[64]

Shell form transformer. Sketch used

by Uppenborn to describe ZBD
engineers' 1885 patents and earliest
articles.[62]
 Core form, front; shell form, back.
Earliest specimens of ZBD-designed
high-efficiency constant-potential
transformers manufactured at the
Ganz factory in 1885.

The ZBD team consisted of Károly

Zipernowsky, Ottó Bláthy and Miksa
Déri

Stanley's 1886 design for adjustable

gap open-core induction coils

Closed-core transformers and

parallel power distribution
In t he aut umn of 1884, Károly Zipernowsky, Ot t ó Blát hy and Miksa Déri (ZBD), t hree Hungarian
engineers associat ed wit h t he Ganz Works, had det ermined t hat open-core devices were
impract icable, as t hey were incapable of reliably regulat ing volt age.[61] The Ganz fact ory had
also in t he aut umn of 1884 made delivery of t he world's first five high-efficiency AC
t ransformers, t he first of t hese unit s having been shipped on Sept ember 16, 1884.[65] This
first unit had been manufact ured t o t he following specificat ions: 1,400 W, 40 Hz, 120:72 V,
11.6:19.4 A, rat io 1.67:1, one-phase, shell form.[65] In t heir joint 1885 pat ent applicat ions for
novel t ransformers (lat er called ZBD t ransformers), t hey described t wo designs wit h closed
magnet ic circuit s where copper windings were eit her wound around an iron wire ring core or
surrounded by an iron wire core.[62] The t wo designs were t he first applicat ion of t he t wo
basic t ransformer const ruct ions in common use t o t his day, t ermed "core form" or "shell form"
.[66]

In bot h designs, t he magnet ic flux linking t he primary and secondary windings t raveled almost
ent irely wit hin t he confines of t he iron core, wit h no int ent ional pat h t hrough air (see Toroidal
cores below). The new t ransformers were 3.4 t imes more efficient t han t he open-core bipolar
devices of Gaulard and Gibbs.[67] The ZBD pat ent s included t wo ot her major int errelat ed
innovat ions: one concerning t he use of parallel connect ed, inst ead of series connect ed,
ut ilizat ion loads, t he ot her concerning t he abilit y t o have high t urns rat io t ransformers such
t hat t he supply net work volt age could be much higher (init ially 1,400 t o 2,000 V) t han t he
volt age of ut ilizat ion loads (100 V init ially preferred).[68][69] When employed in parallel
connect ed elect ric dist ribut ion syst ems, closed-core t ransformers finally made it t echnically
and economically feasible t o provide elect ric power for light ing in homes, businesses and
public spaces. Blát hy had suggest ed t he use of closed cores, Zipernowsky had suggest ed
t he use of parallel shunt connect ions, and Déri had performed t he experiment s;[70] In early
1885, t he t hree engineers also eliminat ed t he problem of eddy current losses wit h t he
invent ion of t he laminat ion of elect romagnet ic cores.[71]

Transformers t oday are designed on t he principles discovered by t he t hree engineers. They

also popularized t he word 't ransformer' t o describe a device for alt ering t he EMF of an
elect ric current [72] alt hough t he t erm had already been in use by 1882.[73][74] In 1886, t he ZBD
engineers designed, and t he Ganz fact ory supplied elect rical equipment for, t he world's first
power st at ion t hat used AC generat ors t o power a parallel connect ed common elect rical
net work, t he st eam-powered Rome-Cerchi power plant .[75]
Westinghouse improvements

E-shaped plates for transformer

cores developed by Westinghouse

Building on t he advancement of AC t echnology in Europe,[76] George West inghouse founded

t he West inghouse Elect ric in Pit t sburgh, Pennsylvania, on January 8, 1886.[77] The new firm
became act ive in developing alt ernat ing current (AC) elect ric infrast ruct ure t hroughout t he
Unit ed St at es. The Edison Elect ric Light Company held an opt ion on t he US right s for t he ZBD
t ransformers, requiring West inghouse t o pursue alt ernat ive designs on t he same principles.
George West inghouse had bought Gaulard and Gibbs' pat ent s for $50,000 in February 1886.[78]
He assigned t o William St anley t he t ask of redesign t he Gaulard and Gibbs t ransformer for
commercial use in Unit ed St at es.[79] St anley's first pat ent ed design was for induct ion coils
wit h single cores of soft iron and adjust able gaps t o regulat e t he EMF present in t he
secondary winding (see image). This design[80] was first used commercially in t he US in
1886[81] but West inghouse was int ent on improving t he St anley design t o make it (unlike t he
ZBD t ype) easy and cheap t o produce.[80]

West inghouse, St anley and associat es soon developed a core t hat was easier t o
manufact ure, consist ing of a st ack of t hin 'E‑shaped' iron plat es insulat ed by t hin sheet s of
paper or ot her insulat ing mat erial. Pre-wound copper coils could t hen be slid int o place, and
st raight iron plat es laid in t o creat e a closed magnet ic circuit . West inghouse obt ained a
pat ent for t he new low-cost design in 1887.[70]

Other early transformer designs

In 1889, Russian-born engineer Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky developed t he first t hree-phase
t ransformer at t he Allgemeine Elekt ricit ät s-Gesellschaft ('General Elect ricit y Company') in
Germany.[82]
In 1891, Nikola Tesla invent ed t he Tesla coil, an air-cored, dual-t uned resonant t ransformer
for producing very high volt ages at high frequency.[83]

Audio frequency t ransformers ("repeat ing coils") were used by early experiment ers in t he
development of t he t elephone.[84]

See also

High-voltage transformer fire barriers

Inductive coupling
Load profile
Magnetization
Parametric transformer
Polyphase system
Power inverter
Rectiformer
Voltage converter
Notes

a. With turns of the winding oriented

perpendicularly to the magnetic field lines,
the flux is the product of the magnetic flux
density and the core area, the magnetic
field varying with time according to the
excitation of the primary. The expression
, defined as the derivative of
magnetic flux with time , provides a
measure of rate of magnetic flux in the
core and hence of EMF induced in the
respective winding. The negative sign in
eq. 1 & eq. 2 is consistent with Lenz's law
and Faraday's law in that by convention
EMF "induced by an increase of magnetic
flux linkages is opposite to the direction
 that would be given by the right-hand
rule."

b. Although ideal transformer's winding

inductances are each infinitely high, the
square root of winding inductances' ratio
is equal to the turns ratio.

c. This also implies the following: The net

core flux is zero, the input impedance is
infinite when secondary is open and zero
when secondary is shorted; there is zero
phase-shift through an ideal transformer;
input and output power and reactive volt-
ampere are each conserved; these three
statements apply for any frequency above
zero and periodic waveforms are
conserved.[5]

d. Direction of transformer currents is

according to the Right-Hand Rule.
 e. Percent impedance is the ratio of the
voltage drop in the secondary from no
load to full load.[14]

References

1. Bedell, Frederick (1942). "History of A-C

Wave Form, Its Determination and
Standardization". Transactions of the
American Institute of Electrical Engineers.
61 (12): 864. doi:10.1109/T-
AIEE.1942.5058456 (https://doi.org/10.1
109%2FT-AIEE.1942.5058456) .
S2CID 51658522 (https://api.semanticsch
olar.org/CorpusID:51658522) .

2. Skilling, Hugh Hildreth (1962).

Electromechanics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
p. 39
3. Brenner & Javid 1959, §18-6 The Ideal
Transformer, pp. 598–600

4. Brenner & Javid 1959, §18-1 Symbols and

Polarity of Mutual Inductance, pp.=589–
590

5. Crosby 1958, p. 145

6. Paul A. Tipler, Physics, Worth Publishers,
Inc., 1976 ISBN 0-87901-041-X, pp. 937-
940

7. Flanagan, William M. (1993). Handbook of

Transformer Design & Applications (http
s://archive.org/details/FlagananHandboo
kOfTransformerDesignApplications)
(2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-
021291-6. pp. 2-1, 2-2

8. Electrical Engineering: An Introduction.

Saunders College Publishing. 1984.
p. 610. ISBN 0-03-061758-8.
 9. Say, M. G. (1983). Alternating Current
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ISBN 978-0-273-01969-5.

10. L. Dalessandro, F. d. S. Cavalcante, and J.

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11. McLaren 1984, pp. 68–74

12. Calvert, James (2001). "Inside
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p://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/transfor.ht
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15. Knowlton, A.E., ed. (1949). Standard
Handbook for Electrical Engineers
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Nomenclature for Parallel Operation, pp.
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16. Daniels 1985, pp. 47–49

17. "400 Hz Electrical Systems" (http://www.a
erospaceweb.org/question/electronics/q
0219.shtml) . Aerospaceweb.org.
Retrieved May 21, 2007.
18. De Keulenaer et al. 2001
19. Kubo, T.; Sachs, H.; Nadel, S. (2001).
Opportunities for New Appliance and
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ww.aceee.org/research-report/a016) .
American Council for an Energy-Efficient
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20. Heathcote 1998, pp. 41–42

21. "Understanding Transformer Noise" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/2006051023142
6/http://www.federalpacific.com/literatur
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(PDF). FP. Archived from the original (htt
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trans/10transformernoise.pdf) (PDF) on
10 May 2006. Retrieved 30 January 2013.
22. Nailen, Richard (May 2005). "Why We
Must Be Concerned With Transformers" (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20090429031
651/http://www.blnz.com/news/2008/0
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_9639.html) . Electrical Apparatus.
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23. Pansini 1999, p. 23

24. Del Vecchio et al. 2002, pp. 10–11, Fig.
1.8
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27. Hindmarsh 1977, pp. 29–31

28. Gottlieb 1998, p. 4
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External links

Wikimedia Commons has media

related to Transformers .
The Wikibook School Science has a
page on the topic of: How to make a
transformer
General links :
 (Video) Power transformer inrush
current (damping) (https://www.youtub
e.com/watch?v=XRb1RKbv0LM)
(Video) Power transformer
overexcitation (damping) (https://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=7Meu7SxBDP
k)
Three-phase transformer circuits (htt
p://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_2/ch
pt_10/6.html) from All About Circuits

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