1248 | EDP101/L | Computer Fundamentals and Programming

G1 | Evolution of Computers
First Generation (1940 - 1956) | Vacuum Tubes
- Bulk first generation computer electronic components
- Building blocks of early computer system.
- Bulky, delicate, and energy-intensive vacuum tubes.
Also known as “Thermionic Valves” - functioned as switches and amplifiers for electronic signals.

Other Parts |
⚫ Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs) | Vacuum tube type used to display information in early computers.
⚫ Resistor Networks | Used in various parts of circuitry controlling the flow of electric current and voltage
levels.
⚫ Capacitors | Used for energy storage and filtering purposes.
⚫ Inductors | Used in circuit configurations for signal processing and energy storage.
⚫ Diodes | One direction current flow, used for rectification and signal modulation.
⚫ Relays | Used to perform switching operations.
⚫ Punch Cards and Paper Tape Readers | Records programs or data.
⚫ Magnetic Drum Memory | First-generation machine data storage.
⚫ Power Supplies and Cooling Systems | To operate properly, from produced heat of transistors.

Second Generation (1956 - 1963) | Transistors

- Replaced vacuum tubes as computer’s main electronic component.
- With transistors, computers became more compact, dependable, and
effective.
The central component of second-generation computers.

Other Parts |
⚫ Diodes | Tasked for signal rectification and modulation.
⚫ Magnetic Core Memory | Key feature of second-generation computers.
⚫ Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) | Use of transistors and other components lead to the development and
adoption of PCBs.
⚫ Flip-Flops and Registers | Essential components for sequential logic circuits.
⚫ Logic Gates | Compact-efficient logic gates (AND, OR, NOT) enabled creation of Transistors.
⚫ Magnetic Drum Storage | Secondary storage and data retrieval.
⚫ High-Level Programming Languages | FORTRAN and COBOL development seen by second generation
and utilized.
⚫ Input and Output Devices | Second=generation input and output utilized punch cards, paper tape, and
early magnetic tape.
⚫ Power Supplies and Cooling Systems | To operate properly, from produced heat of transistors.

Third Generation (1964 - 1971) | Integrated Circuits

- Became the primary technology.
- Revolutionized computer design. Packing multiple transistors, resistors,
diodes, and other components in single chip.
The central component of third-generation computers.
⚫ Silicon | remained primary material for manufacturing integrated circuits.
⚫ Small and Medium Scale | Used in third-generation computers.
⚫ Microprocessors | Complete CPU integrated onto a single chip.
⚫ Memory Modules | Used by ICs to create memory modules, including read-only memory (ROM) and
random-access memory (RAM) chips.
⚫ Peripheral Controllers | Facilitate communication between computer and external devices (printers,
disk drives, terminals).
⚫ High-Level Programming Language | Improves software development productivity and mage
programming more accessible to a broader range of users.
⚫ Operating System | Third-generation systems employed more sophisticated operating systems to
manage hardware resource and provide user-friendly interface.
⚫ Data Input/Output Devices | For user interaction and data exchange with the computer.
⚫ Cooling and Power Systems | Remained crucial for maintaining proper operation of third-generation
computers.

Fourth Generation (1971 - Present) | Microprocessor

- Core components of fourth-generation computers.

Other Parts |
⚫ Transistors and Semiconductor Materials | Microprocessors are constructed using semiconductor
materials, primarily silicon.
⚫ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) | A critical component of the microprocessor that performs arithmetic and
logical operations on data.
⚫ Control Unit | Manages the flow of instructions and data within the microprocessor.
⚫ Registers | are small, high-speed storage units within the microprocessor that temporarily hold data,
instructions, and addresses during processing.
⚫ Cache Memory | A type of high-speed memory built into the microprocessor, used to store frequently
accessed data for faster retrieval.
⚫ Clock Generator | produces clock signals that synchronize the operations of various components within
the microprocessor.
⚫ Instruction Decoder | Interprets the instructions fetched from memory.
⚫ Data Paths | Pathways through which data flows within the microprocessor.
⚫ Input/Output Interfaces | To communicate with external devices such as memory, storage,display
screens, and peripherals.
⚫ Bus System | To transfer data and control signals between various components, including memory,
registers, and input/output interfaces.
⚫ Power Management Circuitry | To ensure efficient energy use and prevent overheating.
⚫ Logic Gates and Multiplexers | Used extensively within the microprocessor to perform logical
operations and manage data flow.
⚫ Cooling Systems | Crucial to maintain optimal operating temperatures.

Fifth Generation (Present - Beyond) | Artificial Intelligence

- Generation that is often associated with artificial intelligence (AI).
- Represents future direction for computing beyond the current fourth
generation.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) Algorithms | Are the core of the fifth generation.

Other Parts |
⚫ Neural Networks and Deep Learning | To process and understand complex data.
⚫ Neural Language Processing (NLP) | Allow computers to understand, interpret, and generate human
language.
⚫ Computer Vision | Enable computers to interpret visual information from images or videos.
⚫ Robotics | Combines AI with physical systems, allowing machines to interact with the physical world.
⚫ Quantum Computing | Could play a significant role in the fifth generation of computers.
⚫ AI-Enabled Hardware | The fifth generation could see the development of specialized hardware
optimized for AI workloads.
⚫ Human-Machine Collaboration | The fourth generation may focus on creating more seamless and
natural interactions between humans and machines.
⚫ Ethical and Responsible AI | As AI becomes more integrated into everyday life, considerations around
ethics, fairness, transparency, and accountability will become increasingly important components of the
fifth generation.
⚫ Cross-Disciplinary Integration | The fifth generation could involve collaboration between AI and other
fields, such as biology, medicine, neuroscience, and materials science, leading to innovative applications
and breakthroughs.

G2 | Inventors and Their Inventions

Wilhelm Schickard (1592-1635)0

⚫ A German Astronomer who worked on astronomy, mathematics, and surveying. He invented a
calculating machine or a mechanical computing device capable of adding and subtracting numbers,
decades before Pascal (Also known as the Father of Calculator).
◼ Rechen Uhr

John Napier (1550-1617)

⚫ A Scottish mathematician and theological writer. To aid in calculations, he invented the concept of
logarithms which he is best known for. A mathematical device with its usage as a means of simplifying
complex calculations. These logarithms remain one of the most important advances in the study and
practical application of mathematics. Bringing the decimal point into common use.
◼ Napier’s Bone

Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)

⚫ Also known as the "Father of Calculator". Blaise Pascal was a French mathematician, physicist, and
philosopher of the 17th century. He pioneered in many fields from game theory and probability of
mathematics and existentialism for philosophy. He invented an early digital calculator, a syringe, a
hydraulic press, and the roulette wheel.
◼ Pascal’s Calculator
◼ Hydraulic Press
◼ Syringe
◼ Roulette Wheel

Joseph Marie Jacquard (1752-1834)

⚫ A French weaver and merchant who played an important role in the development of a programmable
loom. He invented the "Jacquard mechanism" or the "Jacquard loom", which served as the impetus for
the technological revolution of the textile industry and is the basis of the modern automatic loom. Early
version of digital compiler used by IBM to develop the modern-day computer are one of the
programmable machines developed through the said invention.
◼ Jacquard Loom

Charles Babbage (1791 - 1871)

⚫ Also known as the “Father of Computer”. He is an English mathematician and inventor who is credited
with having conceived the first automatic digital computer.
◼ Analytical Engine
◼ Difference Engine

Augusta Ada (1815 - 1852)

⚫ She was an English mathematician and writer, chiefly known for her work on Charles Babbage's
proposed mechanical general-purpose computer, the Analytical Engine.

Herman Hollerith (1860 - 1929)

⚫ He is the inventor of a “punch-card tabulation machine” that revolutionized the speed with which
reams of data could be processed.
◼ Tabulating Machine
John Atanosoff (1903 - 1995) and Clifford Berry (1918 - 1963)
⚫ The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) Being completed by 1942, the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC)
was the first electronic computer. It was designed and built by John Vincent Atanasoff and his assistant,
Clifford E. Berry.
◼ The Atanosoff-Berry Computer (ABC)

Konrad Zuse (1910 - 1995)

⚫ He was a German engineer and computer pioneer. His greatest achievement was the world's first
functional program-controlled Turing-complete computer, the Z3, in 1941
◼ Z3 Computer

John Mauchly (1907 - 1980) and J. Presper Eckert (1919 - 1995)

⚫ These scientists are credited with the invention of the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer
(ENIAC), the first general-purpose electronic digital computer completed in 1946.
◼ ENIAC

Grace Murray Hopper (1906 - 1992)

⚫ This scientist was involved in the creation of UNIVAC, the first all-electronic digital computer. She
invented the first computer compiler, a program that translates written instructions into codes that
computers read directly. This work led her to co-develop the COBOL, one of the earliest standardized
computer languages.
◼ UNIVAC
◼ COBOL

Jack Kilby (1923- 2005)

⚫ American engineer and one of the inventors of the integrated circuit, a system of interconnected
transistors on a single microchip.
◼ Integrated Circuit

Henry Edward Roberts (1941 - 2010)

⚫ American engineer, entrepreneur and medical doctor who invented the first commercially successful
personal computer in 1975. He is most often known as " the father of the personal computer".
◼ Altair 8000

Steve Jobs (1955 - 2011) and Stephen Wozniak (1950 - present)

⚫ The duo who began Apple Computer in 1976, are among the most well-known revolutionaries of the
computing age. Their invention of the first true personal computer changed people’s ideas of what a
computer could look like and what it could do to make their lives easier and their work more efficient.
(1955 - 2011) Z3 Computer
◼ First Apple Computer

G3 | Computer System
What is Computer System?
- Set of integrated devices that input, output, process and store data and information.
- Hardware components include input, output, processing and storage.

Hardware Components | Input Devices

- Provide data and control signals to an information processing system.
Examples:
Mouse | Structured generally with a left and right button and a wheel in the middle. Used to control the
position of the cursor in the screen and has select functions.
Keyboard | Composed of different keys including letters, operations, control keys, function keys, and special
purpose keys. Used to help input data to the computer.
Desktop Microphone | Used in various applications in multimedia presentation and creating music. Used to
input sound in the computer and records real-life sounds.
MIDI Keyboard | Musical Instrumental Digital Interface (MIDI). Connected with a USB or MIDI cable.
Designed to control, send, and receive MIDI data.
Webcam | A small digital video camera that connects to a computer. Capture pictures or motion video.

Hardware Components | Output Devices

- Receives data from the computer and convert it into a form that is perceptible to
human.
Examples:
Speakers | Produce sound from computers. Can be used by multiple persons.
Headphones | Produce sound from computers. Can be only used by one person.
Monitor | Looks similar to the television screen. Displays output in the form of images on a digital screen.
Printer | Prints data from the computer to the paper. Prints in the form of text, image or both in different
colors.
VR Headset | A heads-up display (HUD) which allows users to interact with simulated environments with
experiencing a first-person view. Usually composed of stereoscopic display, stereo sound, and sensors.

Hardware Components | Storage Devices

- A piece of hardware that is primarily used for storing data.
Examples:
Solid State Drive (SSD) | A storage medium that uses non-volatile data to hold and access data.
Hard Disk Drive (HDD) | A non-volatile data device that can store operating systems, software programs,
and other files using magnetic disks.
Compact Disk (CD) | An optical digital medium used to store all kinds of information.
Digital Versatile Disc (DVD) | An optical disc storage medium similar to a compact disc, but with enhanced
data storage capacities.
USB Flash Drive | A compact lightweight and micro portable data storage device used to transfer files,
documents from desktop.
Random Access Memory (RAM) | Internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program, and program result.
Read Only Memory (ROM) | Memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it. This type of
memory is non-volatile.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) | Considered as the brain of the computer. Performs all types of data
processing operations. It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program). It controls the
operation of all parts of the computer.
➢ Two components of CPU:
◼ Control Unit (CU)
◼ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
G4 | Operating Systems & Types of Software
What is an Operating System (OS)?
➢ The interface between a computer user and computer hardware.
➢ A software which performs all the basic tasks such as:
◼ File Management
◼ Memory Management
◼ Process Management
◼ Handling Input and Output and
◼ Controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
The primary purpose of an operating system is to enable applications (software) to interact with a
computer’s hardware and to manage a system’s hardware and software resources.

From the user, the data passes System and Application Software.

Both software will pass the data to the operating system.

The operating system then sends the data to the hardware.

One the data has been processed in the hardware, it then goes back to
the user, in reverse sequence.

Examples of Operating System

Linux | An operating system similar to Windows, iOS and Mac OS. One of the most popular platforms on the planet
which also powers Android.
➢ Has been around since the mid-1990s reaching a user base that spans the globe. It is present from your:
◼ Phones ◼ Refrigerators
◼ Thermostats ◼ Roku Devices
◼ Cars ◼ Televisions
How does Linux work?
➢ Think about an OS like a car engine. An engine can run on its own, but it becomes a functional car when it’s
connected to a transmission, axles, and wheels. Without the engine running properly, the rest of the car won’t
work.
Windows | Microsoft Windows, also called Windows and Windows OS, is a computer operating system (OS) developed
by Microsoft Corporation to run personal computers (PCs). Featuring the first graphical user interface (GUI) for IBM-
compatible PCs, the Windows OS soon dominated the PC market. Approximately 90 percent of PCs run some version of
Windows.
➢ The Purpose of Microsoft Windows
◼ Microsoft Windows serves as the core of most of desktop and laptop computers, with around 90 percent
running some version of the operating system. At its most basic, Windows offers a platform for other
programs to run.
◼ Microsoft has built on this platform over the last three decades, adding in more elaborate user interfaces and
features that make the computer it runs on more powerful and easier to use.
MacOS | MacOS is a desktop operating system developed by Apple that runs on the Mac line of personal computers. It
was the first mainstream operating system to feature a graphical user interface and mouse input. The MacOS desktop
interface is called the Finder. It includes the persistent menu bar at the top of the screen and the main desktop below
that. The Finder also serves as the file manager for MacOS.
➢ Purposes of MacOS
◼ Apple’s marketing for the introduction of the Macintosh focused heavily on its operating system’s intuitive
ease of use. Unlike virtually all other contemporary PCs, the Mac OS (initially designated simply System
Software, with a version number appended) was graphically based.
Difference Between the three:
Linux is an open-source operating system, meaning its source-code is available to the public making it very
customizable and can be modified easily.

Windows is more commercialized, meaning it is meant to be sold to its consumers, but it is a more user friendly
operating system and is widely compatible with many software applications making it more common.

MacOS is a more exclusive operating system, which means it is only used on Apple computers and is tightly integrated
to Apple products and services making it have limited hardware and software options, unlike Windows with its wide
compatibility, but this makes it very compatible to Apple products due to it being optimized exclusively for Apple
computers.

Application Software | A type of computer program that carries out a particular personal, academic, or professional
task. Every program is made to help users do a range of tasks, some of which might be connected to productivity,
creativity, or communication.
➢ This software's includes:
◼ Productivity
◼ Media
◼ Business
◼ Home and entertainment

Types of Application Software |

1. Word Processing Software | The process of creating, editing, saving, and printing documents using specialized
software. It supports functions like synonyms and antonyms, allows customization of fonts, colors, and style, and
includes grammar, spell, and error checking settings.

2. Spreadsheet Software | An automated accounting worksheet application that allows users to perform
mathematical operations, apply formulas, and analyze data. It primarily uses table-based calculations and data
storage, with intersecting cells for various data fields like time, date, text, and numbers.

3. Presentation Software | You can present your thoughts and ideas as a piece of visual data using presentation
software. Particular category of application program used to construct sequences of words and a series of pictures
that tell a story or help support a speech or public presentation. You may add videos, words, charts, graphs, and
photographs to your presentations to make them more engaging and educational.

4. Multimedia Software | Can be described as the combination of text, audio, images, animation, or video to
produce a wide scope of interactive content for both professional and personal use. You can easily learn about
media players, file formats, and how to operate audio and video software on the whole.

5. Graphics Software | Used to make changes in visual data, images, and animation and can be utilized to create
label templates. It comprises different editorial software.

6. Freeware Software | May be downloaded for free is known as freeware. As a result, you can download and install
them without cost. The source code of it, however, cannot be altered in any way.

7. Shareware Software | Given away for free on a trial basis so that the user may test it out or use it for a set
number of days with the knowledge that they may need or want to pay for it in the future. A shareware version of
some software products comes with an expiration date built in, meaning that after 30 days, the user or customer
will no longer be able to access the application for additional usage.

8. Web Browsers Software | You may explore the entire internet with a web browser. On your desktop or mobile
device, it displays data that has been retrieved from other websites for your review. The information is
communicated through the use of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol, which explains how text, pictures, and video
are shared on the World Wide Web.

9. Simulation Software | Authorizes engineers to evaluate, optimize, and compare product designs with other
similar software by modeling real-world events in a computer-generated environment.
10. Educational Software | Any computer program that is purely developed for educational purposes. It comprises a
variety of software, such as language learning software, classroom management software and reference software
for students and other professionals.

Utility Software | system software that help maintain the proper and smooth functioning of a Computer System.
➢ It assists the Operating System to
◼ Manage
◼ Organize
◼ Maintain, and
◼ Optimize the functioning of the computer system.
Utility Software performs certain tasks like virus detection, installation, and uninstallation, data backup, deletion of
unwanted files, etc. Some examples are antivirus software, file management tools, compression tools, disk
management tools, etc.
Types of Utility Software
1. Security Software | Is designed to protect and secure computers, servers, mobile devices, and networks from
unauthorized access, malicious software, and many other threats.
➢ Examples are the following: Antivirus software, Antimalware software, Firewall software, Encryption software,
Password management software, Security suites.
2. System Monitoring Software | A monitoring system helps system administrators monitor their infrastructure.
These tools monitor system devices, traffic, and applications, and sound the alarm in the event of malfunctions
and disruptions.
➢ Examples are the following: Performance monitoring software, Hardware monitoring software, Network
monitoring software.
3. File Management Software | File management systems or File managers are software that store, organize, locate,
track and manage documents.
➢ Examples are the following: File Explorer (Windows), Finder (macOS), ZArchiver, etc.
4. System Maintenance and Optimization Software | Software for system optimization and maintenance helps to
increase a computer system's functionality, stability, and general health.
➢ Examples are the following: Disk defragmentation software, Disk cleanup software, Registry cleaner software,
System optimization software, Driver updater software, PC cleaning software.
5. Utility Software | Utility suites combine many different utility softwares into one program.
➢ Examples are the following: Norton 360, Avast Ultimate, etc.
Other Types:
6. Backup and Recovery Software
7. Remote Access and Support Software
8. Virtualization Software
9. Productivity Software
10. Desktop Enhancement Software
11. Network Management Software
12. Diagnostic and Troubleshooting Software
13. Uninstaller Software
14. Automation Software
15. Parental Control Software
16. Data management Software

G5 | Networking Devices
Networking Devices | also known as network equipment or computer networking devices. These devices are electronic
and are required for communication and interaction between devices on a computer network.
➢ Switch | a network switch that joins devices in a network allowing them to communicate by transferring data
packets.
➢ Router | A network switching device that may route network packets based on their addresses to other
networks or devices.
➢ Modem | A device that receives information from your internet service provider (ISP) and converts it into a
digital signal so you can browse the web, play online games, stream videos, and many more.
➢ Access point | A networking hardware device that allows other Wi-Fi devices to connect to a wired network.
➢ Repeater | Extended transmission so that the signal can cover longer distances or be received on the other
side of an obstruction.
➢ Wi-Fi Adaptors | Allows your wired device to pick up Wi-Fi signals.
➢ A wireless network interface controller which connects to a wireless network, such as
Wi-Fi or Bluetooth, rather than a wired network, such as a Token Ring or Ethernet.
| One Billion computer systems are connected to the internet |

Local Area Network (LAN) | A collection of devices connected in one physical location, such as building, office or home.
➢ use local connections like ethernet cables and wireless access points.
Wide Area Network (WAN) | Telecommunications network that extends over a large geographic area. Often
established with leased telecommunication circuits.
➢ use wide area connections like MPLS, VPNs, leased lines, and the cloud.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) | Connects computer within a metropolitan area, which could be a single large city,
multiple cities and towns, or any give large area with multiple buildings.
➢ larger than a local area network (LAN) but smaller than a wide area network (WAN).

G6 | Types of Computer System

There are 5 types of computers:
➢ Supercomputer
➢ Mainframe computer
➢ Minicomputer
➢ Microcomputer
➢ Workstation

Supercomputer | Computer that exceeds any other machine in every aspect that exists. It is more rapid, has greater
storage capacity, and uses less electricity than any other computer. It functions from variety of tasks such as:
➢ Weather prediction
➢ Climate modeling to nuclear weapons research
➢ Drug discovery
➢ Large scale
➢ Data analysis
Also, a powerful computer than can produce 3D visuals and animations as well as generate and modify video and audio
files in digital format.
➢ Remarkable networking capabilities
➢ Can link with huge networks
➢ Can handle huge quantities of data in record time
➢ Capable of communicating with other computers faster and more efficient compared to normal computer.
Sample Brands |
CRAY INC | Founded in 1972, has been responsible for some biggest breakthrough in supercomputing technology.
International Business Machine (IBM) | Has been manufacturing over three decades. Currently one of the leading
producers of supercomputers in the world. Hewlett-Packard has also been manufacturing supercomputers for many
years and has a strong reputation in the industry.
Silicon Graphics | Newer company, that made big impact in the supercomputing world with its powerful machines.

Mainframe Computer | Are among the most efficient machines on the market utilized for large-scale computing
activities. Often more costly than many other kinds of computers, and their operation requires specialized training.
It is capable of more tasks at the same time as other types of computers. It can store and retrieving huge quantities of
data rapidly and securely.
➢ Built to be extremely dependable. Allowing organizations to rely on them for mission-critical applications.
➢ Used for large-scale computational jobs as well.
➢ Highly scalable and can be easily adapted to changing needs.
Mainframe computers can process a huge amount of information rapidly and effectively.
➢ It can accommodate a significant amount of users and manage a high volume of traffic.
➢ Can store huge quantities of files/records while also providing high degrees of security.
➢ Can execute sophisticated programs while maintaining excellent levels of accessibility.
➢ Can communicate with other systems and deliver flexible solutions.
Sample Brands |
IBM Z | large-scale computer system built for huge corporations and agencies. One of the most powerful mainframe
computers available. Along with transactions, it can store vast amounts of information.
Hewlett Packard Enterprise and DELL EMC | Significant provider of mainframe computer systems. Provides a number
of mainframe systems to meet a variety of purposes and budgets.

Minicomputer | In the mid-1960s, a smaller general-purpose computer was created. Compared to mainframes that
cover a room, minicomputer took up one or a few 19-inch rack cabinets. This computer was made feasible due to
transistors and core memory technology, as well as simple instruction sets and less expensive peripherals.
 ➢ It can perform basic functions of regular computer, including running applications and storing files.
➢ Often used in industrial and commercial settings where space is limited.
➢ Can be used as stand-alone deices or be integrated into larger systems.
➢ Typically consume less power than regular computers, making them more energy efficient
➢ Often offer enhanced security features, making them ideal for use in sensitive environments.
It can do number of functions such as:
➢ Composing documents
➢ Online internet use
➢ Email
➢ Basic video
➢ Audio editing
Minicomputers are widely used in home cinemas and gaming systems. They can connect to the internet and other
devices. Can be outfitted with wireless adapters for Wi-Fi connectivity or linked to a wired network. It may also
communicate with other devices like scanning, printing, and storage drives.

Sample Brands |
Data General Nova | series of 16-bit minicomputers released by the American company Data General. The Nova family
was very popular in the 1970s and ultimately sold tens of thousands of units.
Interdata 7/32 | Computers that are primarily remembered for being the first 32-bit minicomputers under 10,000
Dollars. This model provided fullword data processing power and direct memory addressing up to 1 million bytes using
32-bit general registers and a comprehensive instruction set.

PERSONAL COMPUTER
General-purpose computing device designed for individual use. It’s a type of computer that is intended to be used by a
single person for various tasks, such as word processing, internet browsing, multimedia consumption, gaming,
programming, and more. PCs are versatile machines that can be tailored to suit a wider range of computing needs.
- The term “personal computer” originated in the 1970s when small and affordable computing devices began to
emerge, making it possible for individuals to have their own computing resources. Since then, personal computers have
become an integral part of modern life, facilitating communication, work, education, entertainment, and much more.
The network capability of a personal computer pertains to its capacity to connect with and communicate among
various devices and networks, usually utilizing the Internet Protocol (IP) for data transmission. This encompasses
multiple aspects of a computer’s hardware and software that enable networking and communication functions.
The network capability of a personal computer refers to its ability to establish connections and communicate with
different devices and networks, typically using the Internet Protocol (IP) to exchange data. This involves various
components and features of the computer’s hardware and software that enable networking and interaction.
Examples of Personal Computer:
➢ Micro Computer
➢ Desktop Computer
➢ Laptop Computer or Laptop
➢ Workstation
➢ Smartphone
SAMPLE OF PERSONAL COMPUTER |
➢ Microsoft is the largest vendor of computer software in the world. It is also a leading provider of cloud
computing service, video games, computer and gaming hardware, search and other online services.
➢ Asus is a Taiwanese multinational technology company that is formal known as Asus TEK Computer Inc. The
company was found on April 2, 1989, and the name Asus mean “Eminence by the Chinese” and come from
Greek Mythology.
MICRO COMPUTER |
➢ Is a small-scale, compact computing device that performs various tasks using integrated electronic
components.
➢ Is a compact electronic device that functions as a self-contained computer system, typically utilizing a
microprocessor chip for processing and capable of handling various computational task and data management
functions.
➢ The function of a microcomputer involves executing a wide range of tasks through its integrated electronic
components on a smaller scale. It can process data, run software applications, perform calculations, manage
information, and facilitate communication.
Network Capability |
➢ The network capability of a microcomputer refers to its capacity to connect and communicate with other
devices and network, allowing data exchange and interaction over digital interfaces. This involves the
hardware and software components that enable the microcomputer to establish. Maintain, and manage
 network connections, facilitating tasks such as data sharing, remote access, communication, and internet
connectivity.
Workstation Computer |
➢ Is a high-performance computing device designed for intensive tasks that require significant processing power,
memory, and graphics capabilities.
➢ Workstations are optimized for professional applications such as computer-aided design (CAD), 3D rendering,
scientific simulations, video editing, and other resource-intensive activities.
➢ The primary function of a workstation computer is to efficiently handle resource-intensive activities, such as
complex computations, high-quality graphics rendering, and specialized software application. It provides the
necessary power and reliability to enable professionals in fields like design, research, and multimedia
production to execute intricate tasks with precision and efficiency.
➢ The network capability of a workstation computer pertains to its capacity to connect and interact with various
devices and networks. This encompasses the hardware features that enable the workstation to establish,
manage, and facilitate communication over digital networks, facilitating tasks such as data sharing, remote
access, and internet connectivity.

3 Types of Computers |
➢ ANALOGUE COMPUTER | Analog computers are specifically designed to process analog data. It is a type of
continuous data that continually changes and does not have discrete values. These types of computers are being
used when the users are not familiar with the exact values like temperature, speed, current, and pressure. Analog
computers usually made up of entirely mechanical or electrical components.
o Oscilloscope
o Thermometer
o Seismometer
➢ DIGITAL COMPUTER | Digital Computer are designed in such a way that they can easily perform calculations and
logical operations at high speed. The main benefit of digital computers is that they are quick and re-programmable.
o Laptop, Smartphone, Digital Watches
o ATM (Automated Teller Machine)
➢ HYBRID COMPUTER | Hybrid computers are devices that exhibit the features of both digital and analog computer
o Monitoring machine
o Gasoline fuel vending machine

G7 I Internet Evolution
What is the internet?
When the Advanced Research Project Agency Network (ARPANET) west established in 1969, it initially connected
computers from four universities. It expanded and changed into what w enow know as the internet, which was made
accessible to the general public in 1991.

Internet Terminologies |
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
➢ The address of the web document currently displayed on the monitor.
Parts of a URL |
The protocol or scheme – access a website’s content. Protocols include mailto, file, http, https, and ftps. Through the
domain name system (DNS), one can access the resource.
“https”://www.hypbe.com/bighit/search/query?q=URL
Domain name or host name – a webpage is represented by a specific reference.
https://”www.hypbe.com”/bighit/search/query?q=URL
Port name – usually hidden in URLs, but necessary. Port 80 is the standard port for web servers, although there are
more choices, and they are all always preceded by a colon.

Path – a file or location on the web server is referred to via a path.

https://www.hypbe.com/bighit/”search/query”?q=URL
Query – found in the URL of dynamic pages. The query consists of a question mark, followed by parameters.
https://www.hypbe.com/bighit/search/query”?”q=URL
Parameters – pieces contained in a URL’s query string. Ampersands can be used to separate multiple parameters.
https://www.hypbe.com/bighit/search/query?”q=URL”
Fragment – This internal page provides access to a subsection of the web page. It starts with a hashtag (#) and appears
at the end of a URL.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet”#History”
Server |
➢ A computer that provides a service to another computer.
Components of a Server
➢ Hardware – refers to the dedicated server’s central processing unit (CPU), memory, storage, network
interfaces, and power supply in addition to the server chassis.
➢ Server OS – an operating system (OS) created specifically for a certain kind of client/server environment.
➢ Server software – type of software supports specific use of servers.
➢ Network Connectivity – through a local network (LAN), wide area network (WAN), or the internet, server
programs can connect to the network architecture and communicate with client devices.
➢ Management and Performance Monitoring Tools – for remote management and performance monitoring
often come with servers.
➢ High-Availability Features – to minimize downtime and ensure continuous operation, some servers provide
high-availability (HA) features. This includes access to multiple storage systems, redundant power supply and
network interfaces, and configuration management tools that enable automatic failover and load balancing.
➢ Security Measures – most server software includes security protections to guard against unauthorized access,
data breaches, distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks, and other cybersecurity threats.
Cookie | a file left on the computer by a website’s browser containing the user’s login, password, user preferences, and
other personalized information.

Hypertext Mark Language (HTML) | a standardized system for tagging text files to achieve font, color, graphic, and
hyperlink effects on world-wide web pages.

Internet Applications
World Wide Web | network of internet servers that are capable of handling documents with specific formats. It is an
interactive collection of interconnected hypertext pages. They may include text, images, or links to other websites on
the internet.
Social Media Platforms | Are computer-based applications that enable users to create and share contents online.

Types of Social Media Platforms |

Social Blogging Networks – used for personal articles and journals. Provide customization for layout of user’s page.
Ex. Tumblr, Blogger, Medium
Media Sharing Networks – website that enables user to store and share their multimedia files (photos, videos, music
with other photos)
Ex. YouTube, Pinterest, Spotify
Social Networks – Network of social interactions and personal relationships.
Ex. Facebook, Twitter, Instagram
Discussion Networks – are platforms where users can join a discussion thread about a certain topic.
Ex. Reddit, Quora, Newsvine
Review Networks – are platform to view or to give feedback about an experience of particular service, product, or
business.
Ex. Yelp, Fpursquare, Fpursquare, Tripadvisor

File Sharing | the act of sharing or providing access to digital resources such as documents, multimedia (audio and
video), graphics, computer programs, photographs, and e-books.
Streaming Media Services | digital video or audio that can be uploaded in compressed form over the internet and
played right away on a user’s device instead of being saved to the device’s hard drive or solid-state drive.
Internet Telephony/VOIP | the real-time deliver of voice (and possibly other multimedia data types) between two or
more parties across networks using internet protocols, as well as the exchange of information necessary to control this
delivery.
Multiplayer Online Games | video games that allow for simultaneous interaction between hundreds or thousands of
players in a persistent virtual environment.
Electronic Mail | More formally known as email, is a form of online messaging that enables users to send and receive
messages from other computers.

G8 | Rules in naming an identifier or variable | Keyword or reserved word in C++ | Extended ASCII | Arithmetic
Operators
Rules in naming an identifier or variable.
 ➢ A variable name can only have letters (both uppercase and lowercase letters), digits and underscore.
➢ The first letter of a variable should be either a letter or an underscore.
➢ There is no rule on how long a variable name (identifier) can be. However, you may run into problems in some
compilers if the variable name is longer than 31 characters.
Keyword or reserved word in C++ |
Keywords (also known as reserved words) have special meanings to the C++ compiler and are always written or typed
in short (lower) cases. Keywords are words that the language uses for a special purpose, such as void, int, public, etc. It
can’t be used for a variable name or function name or any other identifiers. The total count of reserved keywords is 95.
Next slide is the table for some commonly used C++ keywords.
Extended ASCII |
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) also known as "high ASCII" or "8-bit ASCII," is a collection
of character sets that build upon the original 7-bit ASCII by using the full capacity of an 8-bit byte, allowing for 256
unique characters instead of just 128. The additional 128 characters (with decimal values ranging from 128 to 255)
include various accented letters, special symbols, and graphical elements.
Arithmetic Operators |
Arithmetic Operators in C++ are used to perform arithmetic or mathematical operations on the operands. For example,
‘+’ is used for addition, ‘–‘is used for subtraction, ‘*’ is used for multiplication, etc. In simple terms, arithmetic operators
are used to perform arithmetic operations on variables and data; they follow the same relationship between an
operator and an operand.

G9 | Computer System Architecture

Computer System Architecture |

A computer system's components, such as the central processing unit (CPU), memory, input/output devices, and the
pathways that allow for data flow and instruction execution, are referred to as its components in terms of computer
system architecture. It describes how these parts work together to run programs, manage data, and complete tasks
effectively.
➢ Von Neumann's 1945 paper titled "First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC" described the architecture of the
Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC), which utilized a memory unit to store both data
and instructions.
➢ The von Neumann architecture was built on this idea of having a central processing unit (CPU) to fetch, decode,
and execute instructions while keeping programs in memory.

G12 | Algorithm and Pseudocode

Algorithm
• The Algorithm is a step-by-step method of solving a problem. It is commonly used for data processing,
calculation, and other related computer and mathematical operations.
• An Algorithm is also used to manipulate data in various ways, such as inserting a new data item, searching for
a particular item, or sorting an item.

Why are algorithms used?

 1. Backbone of Computer Science Field.
2. Ranges from operating calculators to rockets.
3. Used by Google Engineers to improve searches and predict user behaviors.

Pseudocode
• -Is an informal program description that does not contain code syntax or underlying technology considerations.
• -It summarizes the program flow but excludes underlying programming details.
Why are Pseudocodes used?
1. Used as a detailed phase.
2. Allows designers to explain code in great detail.
3. Comprehensive and Accessible.
4. Early error detection

Relational and Logical Operations

== equal to
!= not equal to
< less than
<= less than or equal to
> greater than
>= greater than or equal to
! not
&& AND
II OR

Algorithm Flowchart Pseudocode

• Are instructions to address
general problems.
• Pure English and Mathematical
notations with no writing rules.
• Not a tool for creating
documents.
• Are pictorial representations.
• Represented by symbols and
shapes.
• Visual representations of
algorithms
• Are instructions to address
specific problems.
• In English but follows set of
relational operators.
• Document that represents a
tool algorithm

➢ Simple Structure
➢ With Condition
➢ With Looping

Data Types and Variables

What do Variables and Data Types mean?
Variable | It can be thought as a memory location that can hold values of a specific type. Its value may change during
the life of the program.
➢ Each variable has a specific type data, which indicates which type of data it may hold.
- INTEGER - (int)
- FLOAT - (float)
- DOUBLE (double precision) - (double)
- CHARACTER - (char)
- VOID - (void)
- STRING - (std::string)
- CHARACTER ARRAY - (char *arr)
- BOOLEAN - (bool)
The general rules for naming a variable are:
✓ Names can contain letters, digits, and underscores.
✓ Names must begin with a letter or an underscore (_)
✓ Names are case sensitive (myVAR and myvar are different variables)
✓ Names cannot contain whitespaces or special characters like !, #, %, etc.
✓ Reserved words (like C++ keywords, such as int) cannot be used as names.

What are C++ Reserved words?

➢ A reserved word is a word that cannot be used as an identifier, such as the name of a variable, function, or
label - it is “reserved from use”.
 ➢ There are a total of 95 reserved words in C++.
➢ Keywords have a special meaning in language and are part of the syntax. Reserved words are words that
cannot be used as identifiers (variables, functions, etc.) because they are reserved by the language. In practice,
most keywords are reserved words and vice versa.
What is ASCII?
➢ To represent text in a computer system, we give each character its own special number. This number is called
its code. We can then store this code in the computer using binary ones and zeros.
➢ ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
➢ The maximum number of characters that can be represented in extended ASCII is 256.
➢ A = 65 = 01000001

What are C++ Arithmetic Operators?

➢ Arithmetic Operators in C++ are used to perform arithmetic or mathematical operations on the operands.
➢ “+” used for addition, “- “for subtraction, “*” for multiplication, etc.
C++ Arithmetic operators are of 2 types:
➢ Unary Arithmetic Operators - These operators operate or work with two operands. C++ provides 5 Binary
Arithmetic Operators for performing arithmetic functions.
➢ Binary Arithmetic Operators - These operators operate or work with a single operand.
C++ Assignment Operators - In C++, assignment operators are used to assign values to variables.
C++ Equal to Operators - in C+ are is equal to (==) and is not equal to (!=). The equal-to operator (==) returns true (1) if
both operands have the same value; otherwise, it returns false (0). The not-equal-to operator (!=) returns true if the
operands do not have the same value; otherwise, it returns false.
C+ Modulus Operator - The modulus operator % computes the remainder.
Ex: When a = 9 is divided by b = 4, the remainder is 1.
C++ Operators Precedence
If there are multiple operators in a single expression, the operations are not evaluated simultaneously. Rather,
operators with higher precedence have their operations evaluated first,
C++ Logical Operators
Logical operators are used to check whether an expression is true or false. If the expression is true, it returns 1 whereas
if the expression is false, it returns 0.