● Biological evolution

● Change in allele frequencies within a population across generations

● 5 forces of evolutionary change
○ Selection
■ Natural
● Abiotic
○ Temperature, drought, flood
● Biotic
○ Food availability, competition in your species
■ Sexual
○ Mutation
■ Natural consequence of copying DNA
■ Undirected, random changes
■ Can occur anywhere in the gene
○ Random genetic drift
■ Random changes in allele frequency due to random occurrence of death
○ Migration
○ Non-random, assortative mating
■ Meeting with individuals with the same geno/phenotype
■ Meeting with individuals with the same geno/phenotype
■ Alters genotype frequency but not necessarily allele frequency in a
population
○ Which increase genetic variation and which decrease genetic variation?
● Charles Darwin
○ Family was in the science field
○ Good education
○ Began studying theology
○ Interested in natural history
○ Mapping coast of south america in 1830’s; five years
○ Visited Galapagos for three weeks
■ Had giant tortoises
■ Can go long time without food and water
■ Would eat the turtles after about 6 weeks
○ 1835 sorted through specimens and started thinking about the origin of species
○ Had abstract 231 pages long by 1844
■ Friends didnt think he had enough
■ Got enough evidence
■ Showed extended version it to his friends, joseph dalton, thomas huxley,
hooker, john lubbock, and thomas wollaston in 1847 and they encouraged
him to publish it
■
● Alfred Russel Wallace
○ Grew up in poverty
 ○ Dad started as a lawyer and job hopped but failed
○ Left school at 13
○ Interested in natural history
○ Read darwin's publishings from voyage if the beagle
○ Read lyell’s principles of geology and malthus’ essay on populations
○ Formed Idea of origin of species on two different trips
■ South america(1848-1852)
● Brother died
● “On the monkeys of the amazon in 1852”
○ Different species of monkeys in north and south
○ South side not able to reach north side and vice versa
■ Malay Archipelago(1854-1862)
● Wallace’s line
○ Bali to Lombok
○ Oceanic trench in between
○ East connected by land bridges
○ West connected by land bridges
○ Discontent between east and west
○ Different kinds of species on each side of the line
○ Further west, flora and fauna started to look like south east
asia
○ Further east flora and fauna started to look like australia
■ Lyell showed “on the law which has regulated the intro of new species to
darwin”
■ Sent Darwin a manuscript, “on the tendency of varieties to depart
indefinitely more from the original type.”
○ Darwin and wallace published something at the same time
● Application
○ Don’t procrastinate
■ Sat on his publishing, should’ve published sooner
○ Find good mentors
○ Be driven
● More offspring are produced than can possibly survive
○ Leads to the “struggle for existence”
● Interindividual phenotypic variation exists
○ Makes individuals different enough that selection can act on individuals with
varying phenotypes
● Interindividual phenotypic variation is heritable
○ Genetic basis for these variations allowing them to be passed through
generations
● Interindividual phenotypic variation results in interindividual variation in either
reproductive success or survival haha haha thank you for
● Fossil Record
 ○ Intermediate forms representing different stages of evolutionary development
within lineages
● Homology
○ Structures that have the same evolutionary origin
■ Ex: the bone structure of a Human’s, cat’s, bat’s, et. arm
● Molecular evidence
○ genomes of species show similarities as well as signs of cumulative change
indicating nucleotide level indicating evolutionary relationship
● Sequence of DNA that codes for a functional product
○ Also code for
■ mRNA
■ tRNA
■ rRNA
○ Found on mitochondrion, chloroplast, and nucleus
● Allele
○ Different expressions of a gene
● Nucleotide
○ Nitrogenous base (A,T,G,C, and U(takes place of T in RNA), sugar, and
phosphate
● Purine
○ Shorter name, bigger structure
○ A,T
● Pyrimidines
○ Longer name, smaller structure
○ G,C
● Cells can detect if bases are not paired correctly because the distance between the two
strands that make the helix will start to get smaller.
● DNA
○ Double helix
● RNA
○ Single stranded
● Genotype
○ Actual alleles you have for a genome
● Test cross
● Quantitative Traits
○ Breeders equation
■ R=h^2(s)
● Directional selection
○ Average phenotype increases or decreases
○ In any case average phenotype will move
○ Variation goes down
■ More narrow
■ Mean shifts
● Stabilizing selection
 ○ Selecting against both sides equally
○ Variation decreases because your removing individuals from population in both
ends
○ Over time mean does not change, but distribution gets narrower
● Disruptive selection
○ Selecting against the average phenotype
■ Either short or tall rather than average
○ Average will stay the same
○ Variation will increasing, spreading the spectrum to the outer edges
● decrease variation slow down rate of evolution
● Pleiotropy
○ One gene controlling multiple traits
■ Bigger comb on chicken more eggs they produce
● Genes that control how many eggs are produced is the same
gene that controls how much cartilage is laid down on the chicken
● Higher bone density chickens produce better egg shells
○ Antagonistic pleiotropy
■ Traits controlled by one gene that contradict eachother
● Genetic interaction
○ Striped snakes
■ Predator cant tell where the snake begins and ends
■ If reverses itself, easier to pick out
■ Checkered
● Looks like all one color when slithering
● But difficult to see when sitting still
■ Genes interact to where they lead to different fitness outcomes
● More offspring=more fit
○ SCALED 0-1, 1 is the most fit
● Pollen carry copper resistance genes, falls on plants which cause a copper tolerance in
plants around the mine and on the downwind side
● Male guppy Color
○ Using color pattern to intimidate other males
○ Advertising to females looking to mate
■ Females are a resource to them
● Producing eggs
● Female choice
○ Choose high quality males
■ Don't want their recourse(egg) to be available to just any male
● Females choose males with long tails
○ Pass on the long tails
○ Pass on trait that encourages females to choose long tail trait
● Ultimate question
○ Asks why natural selection favors a particular trait
● Proximate explanations address mechanisms that cause a certain trait
● Cna answer simultaneously
○ Put two different colored mice in different environments observed what survived
● Plasticine mice
○ Melanocytes
■ Producing pigments deposited into hair
○ 2 genes that control melanin in hair
■ agouti
● Mutation Affects gene expression
● Atlantic coast
■ Mc1r
● In Florida,gulf coast
○ Mutilation in this gene
■ Prevents from producing dark pigment making the
mice light
● Natural selection results in adequacy, not perfection
● More colorful, the more care they get from the parent
● Variable interest- coloration
● Separate different species of birds based on their color and gather one species of adult
birds and see what species of bird they tend to most
● Mensurative- using natural selection as a basis of an experiment