Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that evaluates the morality of actions based on their consequences,

specifically on the overall happiness or well-being they produce. Here, I will discuss the theory in more
detail and provide examples of case laws and scenarios to help illustrate its application.

Bentham (1748–1832) is generally considered the father of actual utilitarianism. The principle of utility—
the“greatest happiness principle” or “the greatest happiness for the greatest number”—is the
fundamental utilitarian principle, as expressed in this famous passage: Nature has placed mankind under
the governance of two sovereign masters, pains and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we
ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do. On the one hand the standard of right and wrong,
on the other the chain of causes and effects, are fastened to their throne. They govern us in all we do, in
all we say, in all we think [...]The principle of utility recognizes this subjection, and assumes it for the
foundation of that system, the object of which is to rear the fabric of felicity by the hands or reason and
of law. (Bentham 1789: 1–2)

First, Bentham lists the different classes of elementary pleasures or pains. Second, the value of utility is
assessed according to different criteria including intensity, duration, certainty or uncertainty,
propinquity or remoteness, fecundity, purity and extent. Finally, the result of this calculation is adjusted
to each individual on the basis of the circumstances that influence her sensitivity

John Stuart Mill’s utilitarianism (1806-1873), influenced by perfectionist intuitions, is also meant to
answer objections such as those levelled at Bentham’s theory. Among other insights, he recognizes that
all pleasures do not seem equally valuable, as evoked in a celebrated

5passage: It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates
dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. And if the fool, or the pig, are of a different opinion, it is because they
only know their own side of the question. (Mill 1861: 37)

Mill’s utilitarianism is able to discriminate higher moral and aesthetic sentiments from sources of
swinish pleasure. His proof for his principle of ranking is based on the fact that those who have
experienced both kinds of pleasures know which is more valuable; this is why we speak of Mill’s
qualitative utilitarianism. The details of the consideration of different sources of pleasure as set out in
Mill’s view has led certain authors to regret Mill’s “naturalist fallacy” (Moore 1903). In order to
distinguish between different kinds of pleasures, we need to suppose there exists another value, other
than utility, which has intrinsic importance, such that some specific actions are good by their nature
rather than by their actual consequences.

Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that was developed by philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart
Mill. It is a consequentialist theory, meaning that the moral worth of an action is determined by its
outcome or consequences. Utilitarianism posits that the right action is the one that maximizes overall
happiness or well-being for the greatest number of people.

Key Principles of Utilitarianism:

1. The Principle of Utility: Utilitarianism is based on the principle of utility, which holds that actions are
morally right if they produce the greatest amount of happiness or pleasure and minimize suffering or
pain for the greatest number of individuals affected.

2. Hedonistic Calculus: Bentham proposed a method called the "hedonistic calculus" to determine the
overall utility or happiness produced by an action. This calculus factors in elements such as intensity,
duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and extent of pleasure or pain.

3. Act vs. Rule Utilitarianism: There are two main branches of utilitarianism: act utilitarianism and rule
utilitarianism. Act utilitarianism focuses on evaluating the consequences of individual actions and
making choices based on which act leads to the greatest overall happiness. Rule utilitarianism, on the
other hand, emphasizes the importance of following rules that, when universally applied, would produce
the greatest overall happiness.

4. Impartiality: Utilitarianism stresses impartiality, meaning that all individuals' happiness is of equal
worth and should be taken into consideration when evaluating actions. This principle discourages
favoritism or bias towards specific individuals or groups.

Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that evaluates the morality of actions based on their consequences,
specifically on the overall happiness or well-being they produce. Here, I will discuss the theory in more
detail and provide examples of case laws and scenarios to help illustrate its application.

1. Case Law: R v. Dudley and Stephens (1884)

In this case, a group of sailors was stranded at sea without food for several days. Two of the sailors,
Dudley and Stephens, decided to kill and eat a young cabin boy to survive. They were later rescued, but
were charged with murder. The court found them guilty of murder, despite the circumstances, rejecting
their defense of necessity. The reasoning behind this decision was that allowing the killing would
undermine the sanctity of human life, even though it might have maximized overall survival or
happiness. This case exemplifies a limitation of utilitarianism where individual rights and the
preservation of fundamental moral principles outweigh the pursuit of overall happiness.

2. Scenario: Vaccination Program

Consider a scenario where a government is implementing a vaccination program to combat a deadly

disease. Utilitarianism would support the vaccination program as it aims to maximize overall happiness
by preventing the spread of the disease, reducing suffering, and saving lives. The potential risks or side
effects of the vaccines are weighed against the benefits of controlling the outbreak and safeguarding
public health.

3. Case Law: Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

In this case, the United States Supreme Court upheld racial segregation laws, which stipulated separate
facilities for Blacks and Whites, as long as they were "separate but equal." The decision perpetuated
racial discrimination and inequality for decades. From a utilitarian perspective, this ruling might be
criticized because it prioritized maintaining social order and the preferences of the majority over the
overall well-being and happiness of racial minorities. This highlights the criticism of utilitarianism for
potentially sacrificing individual rights and justice for the greater good.

4. Scenario: Environmental Protection

Utilitarianism can be applied to guide decisions related to environmental conservation. For instance,
when determining whether to build a new factory in a pristine natural area, utilitarianism takes into
account the potential economic benefits, job creation, and increased productivity against the
environmental impact, loss of biodiversity, and degradation of the ecosystem. The aim is to strike a
balance that maximizes overall happiness, accounting for the well-being of future generations.

Advantages of Utilitarianism:

1. Promotes General Welfare: Utilitarianism places a strong emphasis on the general welfare and strives
to maximize overall happiness, creating a framework that aims to benefit society as a whole.

2. Flexibility: Utilitarianism allows for flexibility in decision-making by focusing on the consequences of

actions rather than following rigid ethical rules. This adaptability enables individuals to consider context
and make choices that best promote overall well-being.

3. Rational Decision-Making: Utilitarianism provides a systematic approach to decision-making by

considering the expected outcomes and calculating the overall utility. This rational approach aims to
guide individuals towards making choices that produce the best overall consequences.

Critiques of Utilitarianism:

1. Individual Rights: Critics argue that utilitarianism may overlook or sacrifice individual rights and justice
in pursuit of maximizing overall happiness. The emphasis on the greatest good for the greatest number
can lead to the marginalization or violation of the rights of minorities or vulnerable individuals.

2. Measurement and Subjectivity: Quantifying happiness or pleasure is a challenging task, as it is

subjective and influenced by personal preferences, cultural values, and individual circumstances. This
subjectivity limits the practicality and applicability of the hedonistic calculus.

3. Neglect of Intentions: Utilitarianism predominantly focuses on the outcome or consequences of an

action, often neglecting the importance of intentions or motives behind the action. Critics argue that
intentions can significantly impact the morality of an action, and solely focusing on outcomes may
undermine the ethical framework.