TITLE

Bachelor Thesis

At the University of Applied Sciences, Hof

Faculty Of Engineering

Innovative Textiles

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Table of Contents
LIST OF TABLES.............................................................................................................4
Abstract:............................................................................................................................5
Chapter : 1 Introduction:...................................................................................................6
Chapter 2. Methodology for conducting case studies of companies within European Nordic
countries-..........................................................................................................................7
2.1 Qualitative approach-..........................................................................................................7
2.2 Literature Review-..............................................................................................................7
2.3 Data Collection-...................................................................................................................7
2.4 Case study approach-..........................................................................................................8
Chapter 3. The conceptual framework for conducting case studies of companies within
European Nordic countries................................................................................................9
3.1 Circular economy................................................................................................................9
.3.2 Stakeholder theory...........................................................................................................10
3.3 Socio-technical systems-....................................................................................................12
3.5 Drivers for sustainability...................................................................................................14
3.6 Previous studies about sustainability of the fashion industry and use of recycled fibers-. 16
3.7 Excessive consumption poses a significant challenge within the fashion industry-............17
Chapter 4. Case studies of European Nordic countries-...................................................18
4.1 Acne Studios-.....................................................................................................................18
4.2- Filippa K –........................................................................................................................19
4.3 Ganni-................................................................................................................................20
4.4 House of Dagmar-..............................................................................................................20
4.5 Gina Tricot-.......................................................................................................................21
4.6 Pure Waste-.......................................................................................................................22
Chapter 5. Analysis of case study companies-...................................................................23
5.1 Sustainability and use of recycled fibers-..........................................................................23
5.1.1 Strategies and motivations-...............................................................................................................23
5.1.2 Future perspectives for recycled fibers –...........................................................................................25
5.1.3 Challenges regarding sustainability and the use of recycled fibers-..................................................27
5.1.4 Relevant collaboration and partnerships-..........................................................................................27
5.2 Slowing down resource loops-............................................................................................28
5.3 Socio-technical system and related stakeholders-..............................................................29
5.4 Discussion..........................................................................................................................31
5.4.1 Which drivers for using recycling fibers?..........................................................................................31
5.4.2 What challenges are to be faced?......................................................................................................32
5.4.3What could be expected in the future?...............................................................................................33
5.5 Conclusions of the case study............................................................................................33
5.5.1 Circular economy for a more sustainable future-..............................................................................34

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 5.5.2 Future research-................................................................................................................................34

Chapter 6. Technology assessment: closing material loops through textile recycling-.......36

6.1 Established recycling technologies-...................................................................................37
6.2 Innovative closed-loop recycling technologies-..................................................................38
Chapter 7. Theoretical framework of textile upcycling-....................................................42
7.1 Upcycling...........................................................................................................................42
7.2 Cradle to Cradle................................................................................................................42
7.3 The textile industry............................................................................................................43
7.4 The dynamics of fashion in textiles.....................................................................................................43
7.5 The vendors’ motivation....................................................................................................44
7.6 Challenges facing upcycled textile products-.....................................................................44
7.6.1 Trademark infringement-...................................................................................................................44
7.6.2 Labeling............................................................................................................................................44
7.7 The consumers-..................................................................................................................45
7.7.1 Consumer attitudes............................................................................................................................45
7.7.2 Environmental awareness..................................................................................................................45

Chapter 8. Upcycling in fashion design –.........................................................................47

8.1 Forms of textile upcycling-................................................................................................49
8.2 Exploring the industrial manufacturing process of upcycling post-consumer textile waste
(PCTW) and contrasting it with virgin production-................................................................51
9. Case Study: Freitag - Pioneering Sustainable Fashion Through Upcycling.................53
9.1 Philosophy and Storytelling-.............................................................................................54
9.2 Sustainable and Transparent Production Processes-.........................................................54
9.3 Product and Service Offerings:.........................................................................................55
9.4 Continuous Innovation and Partnerships-........................................................................55
9.5 Conclusion-........................................................................................................................56
References.......................................................................................................................57

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LIST OF FIGURES:

Figure 1Relevant stakeholders for this project (Roberts, 2003, p. 162, with minor
modifications)...........................................................................................................................11
Figure 2 Types of strategies (From Mintzberg, 2000, p. 24)....................................................15
Figure 3 Elements of the socio-technical system of clothing products (in black) and their
relevant stakeholders (in red). Circulatory elements are represented in blue (Based on Geels,
2004, pp. 900– 901, with minor modifications).......................................................................29
Figure 4 Textile recycling approaches as well as technologies and their integration into
product life cycle (depiction based on Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2017a, Greenblue 2017,
Norden 2014, Norden 2017, Re:newcell 2018).......................................................................36
Figure 5 Textile recycling and upcycling Source: Aus 2011, p. 42..........................................47
Figure 6 Standardised upcycling process model Source: Fraser 2009, p. 50...........................50
Figure 7 Materialkreislauf | FREITAG source- https://www.freitag.ch/de/material-cycle......54

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Synopsis of the sustainability-driving factors cited by the case companies. An "X"
signifies that the brand has not referenced this aspect in the analyzed documents..................24
Table 2 The present status of the case companies concerning recycled fibers and their
objectives to achieve by a specified time frame, as inferred from the content of the reviewed
documents................................................................................................................................26
Table 3 provides an overview of extra circular initiatives implemented by the case companies.
An "X" indicates that the brand has not undertaken such an initiative based on the content of
the analyzed documents...........................................................................................................28

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Abstract:
This thesis explores strategies and innovations for sustainable fabric recycling and upcycling
in the fashion and textile industry, with a focus on Scandinavian nations. Despite the growing
interest in sustainability within the fashion industry, there is limited research on upcycling of
textile materials. This study addresses this gap by conducting case studies on prominent
Scandinavian fashion brands, including Acne Studios, Filippa K, Ganni, House of Dagmar,
Gina Tricot, and Pure Waste, all of which integrate recycled fibers into their clothing
products. The research evaluates their sustainability strategies and compares their approaches
to fabric recycling and upcycling. Additionally, the thesis examines the industrial
manufacturing process of upcycling post-consumer textile waste and contrasts it with virgin
production, using Fraser's (2009) standardized upcycling process model. Furthermore, a case
study on Freitag, a Swiss upcycling brand, illustrates pioneering sustainable fashion practices.
The findings contribute to the understanding of sustainable practices in the fashion industry
and provide insights for companies seeking to enhance their environmental impact.

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 Chapter : 1 Introduction:
The fashion and textile business is under increased attention because of its substantial
environmental impact, which includes waste generation, pollution, and resource depletion. A
increasing number of people are looking for sustainable ways to reduce their influence on the
environment and encourage the circular economy, such as upcycling and fabric recycling, in
response to these problems. Notwithstanding the significance of these techniques, there is still
a dearth of study on innovative upcycling in the textile and fashion sectors.

With an emphasis on Scandinavian countries recognized for their sustainability leadership,

this thesis attempts to close this gap by examining methods and advancements for sustainable
fabric recycling and upcycling. In order to analyze well-known Scandinavian fashion firms
that include recycled fibers into their goods, the research uses a case study methodology.
Acne Studios, Filippa K, Ganni, House of Dagmar, Gina Tricot, and Pure Waste are among
the well-known companies that have been chosen for their dedication to sustainability.

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The thesis also explores the industrial manufacturing process of upcycling post-consumer
textile waste and compares it with techniques of production that use virgin materials. Fraser's
(2009) model of the standardized upcycling process offers a framework for assessing and
contrasting upcycling methods used in the fashion sector. A case study on Freitag, a Swiss
upcycling company well-known for its inventive goods made from tarpaulin trash, also
provides insights into cutting-edge sustainable fashion techniques. Although there is a dearth
of information regarding advancements in upcycling, the thesis makes use of extant literature
and real-world examples to highlight the potential of fabric recycling and upcycling in
supporting a more environmentally conscious fashion sector.

Chapter 2. Methodology for conducting case studies of companies

within European Nordic countries-
This chapter aims to explain the chosen methodology for this study.

2.1 Qualitative approach-

A subjective technique has been selected because the investigated region of this extent is
complex and influenced by personal beliefs and environment (Gummesson, 2006).
Furthermore, given that the goal of this project is to get an understanding of contemporary
society, a method based on several case studies of the important partners seems appropriate
(Yin, 2009). Furthermore, a corporate perspective has been used with clothing brands as the
unit of analysis because a brand's name is close to the public's consciousness and is hence
vulnerable to weight to adopt more viable hones (Seuring and Müller, 2008).

2.2 Literature Review-

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In order to ensure internal validity, the study began with a thorough assessment of the
literature, digging into scholarly publications to establish a core grasp of the issue (Kvale,
1996). Targeting academic databases like Google Scholar, Web of Science, and Scopus, the
search approach used terms like recycled fibers, circular economy, fashion, luxury, and
sustainability. A careful examination of pertinent articles was conducted, with a preference
for recent studies, though no time limit was set. Extra sources were also found by looking
into references in papers that were reviewed or by following suggestions made by reviewers.
In addition to scholarly sources, background material was supplemented by consulting
accessible brands' websites and sustainability reports.

2.3 Data Collection-

Documents are a useful source of both qualitative and quantitative data for case
studies (Yin, 2013). Various document kinds were used in this investigation, based
on what the clothing manufacturer had available. Acne Studios, Filippa K, Gina
Tricot, and Pure Waste all have sustainability reports available for viewing as of
2019 (Acne Studios, 2019; Filippa K, 2019; Gina Tricot, 2019; Pure Waste, 2019).
Furthermore, a wealth of information about the sustainability policies and recycled
fiber usage of high-end fashion firms Ganni and House of Dagmar was accessible
on their websites (Ganni, 2019; House of Dagmar, 2019). We obtained more
information about the brands' histories, sizes, and relevant facts from their
individual websites.

It is noteworthy that larger businesses tend to provide sustainability reports more frequently
than smaller ones, mostly because they have access to more management and statistical
resources (Caniato et al., 2012). This makes gathering data difficult, especially for smaller
organizations like Pure Waste or House of Dagmar.

2.4 Case study approach-

Scandinavian countries are an attractive subject for investigation since they are
recognized for being leaders in sustainability (Strand et al., 2015). Placing
businesses inside their national institutional frameworks is particularly important,
as these contexts have a big impact on their business strategies both formally and
informally (Duran and Bajo, 2014). Furthermore, to improve textile recycling and
lessen environmental effect, there is an increasing need for creative and sustainable
business models, especially in the Nordic region (Ekvall et al., 2015). It is
plausible to infer that all of the included countries share a same backdrop, even
though the study's geographical scope was extended to include the European
Nordic countries as a result of the discovery of a pioneering Finnish brand. Finally,
it was essential to have access to publicly accessible materials outlining companies'
Sustainability methods in the event of unavailability of brand representatives for
interviews.

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Criteria for assessing the case firms: i) All apparel firms are categorized as corporations,
indicating their involvement in the capital market.
ii) The companies have their headquarters in the European Nordic countries of Sweden,
Denmark, and Finland, which are located in the same geographic region.
iii) Incorporating reclaimed fibers into their clothing products.
v) The presence of a sustainability report or any other document that is accessible to the
general public.

An extensive worldwide web investigation was carried out utilizing these specific criteria to
locate Nordic fashion businesses. To do this, I utilized Google to search for keywords such as
recycled, sustainable, fashion, clothing, Scandinavia, and Nordic. A compilation of potential
case firms was generated by amalgamating the enterprises identified in the study findings
with those highlighted in news articles, blog posts, and other instructional materials.
Companies cited in scholarly publications from the literature study were also taken into
account. After individually assessing each prospective firm to determine if it met the
selection criteria, a final list of six case companies was compiled. Significantly, because to
their extensive global presence, very international Scandinavian firms such as H&M were not
taken into account.

Chapter 3. The conceptual framework for conducting case studies of

companies within European Nordic countries-
The theories and terminology utilized in this work are defined in this chapter. It starts with a
general introduction to the idea of the circular economy and then makes a connection to the
idea of business models. Furthermore, the idea of innovation for sustainability makes it
possible to discuss sustainable business models and how crucial they are to sustainability.

3.1 Circular economy

The concept of a circular economy (CE) is an innovative approach that has the potential to
enhance global sustainability (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2015; European Commission,
2015). The primary objective is to decouple resource use from economic growth (Preston,
2012). As the constraints of ecological systems and the limited nature of natural resources
become increasingly evident, this approach offers a method to achieve a harmonious
equilibrium between economic development and sustainability (Steffen et al., 2015).

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The Ellen MacArthur Foundation defines circular economy (CE) as a system that is designed
to restore and regenerate resources. It does this by separating technological and biological
cycles and ensuring that materials, products, and components are kept at their highest level of
usefulness and value for an endless period of time (2015, p. 2). Unlike the traditional "cradle-
to-grave" strategy, the Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2017b) proposes a three-pronged
"cradle-to-cradle" life cycle approach:

The objectives include: (i) implementing strategies to minimize waste and pollution; (ii)
promoting the sustainable use of resources and commodities; and (iii) restoring natural
ecosystems.

These concepts are relevant to the utilization of recycled fibers by clothing companies. They
contribute to waste reduction, pollution mitigation, and the establishment of material cycles,
all of which effectively minimize the adverse environmental impacts of the fashion industry.

A circular economy is essentially characterized by a circulatory system that promotes an

internal cycle of materials (Allenby, 1994). There are numerous models that highlight distinct
strategies like delaying, closing, or constricting resource loops (Bocken et al., 2016). But just
closing resource gaps without adjusting production and consumption rates might not be
enough to make a big difference. Therefore, it is imperative to comprehend the temporal
dimension, as this study explores using the ideas of high-fashion and fast-fashion.

The research intends to assess the possible sustainability gains attained by resource loop
slowing in clothing production and consumption by taking time dynamics into account.

In this context, one of the project's primary research topics is the recycling of textiles and
fibers to close resource loops. Businesses that employ recycled fibers are directly adhering to
the fundamentals of the circular economy, which include minimising waste and pollution and
extending the life of products and materials, all of which contribute to significant
sustainability gains.

Additionally, there are several ways to use circularity, highlighting the significance of taking
a comprehensive approach for a long-term circular business model (Antikainen and
Valkokari, 2016; Bocken et al., 2014). It becomes imperative to investigate further circular
activities implemented by businesses. In addition to recycling, products can also be
repurposed (Stahel, 2010). This project looks at this topic by introducing companies to
second-hand shops, for example. Designing items for simple disassembly and reassembly for
reuse is another tactic to shut loops (Bocken et al., 2016). Furthermore, apparel
manufacturers implement tactics aimed at extending the life of their products by improving
their quality or repairing them (Ibid.). This strategy also includes creating items that are
reliable and long-lasting, encouraging prolonged usage without early wear and tear

.3.2 Stakeholder theory

Making use of recycled fibers is one strategy to improve a business's sustainability and, by
extension, its standing (Macchion et al., 2018). A relevant factor to take into account in this
situation is corporate reputation, which is described as "the opinion that those with an interest
in the company (stakeholders) hold about the company" (Roberts, 2003, p. 160). Even though
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a company has a positive reputation for sustainability among some stakeholders, it might
nonetheless face accusations of greenwashing. According to Bocken et al. (2016), an
integrated strategy is therefore essential for improving manufacturing processes, particularly
when aiming to establish a circular economy.
Using stakeholder theory—an updated view that recognizes the significance of all
stakeholders, not just shareholders—becomes pertinent in this situation (Freeman et al.,
2007). According to this idea, in order for a company to succeed, it must interact with a
variety of stakeholders and use its operations to co-create sustainable value (Ibid.). According
to Mitchell et al. (1997), stakeholders can include a broad range of entities, such as people,
organizations, institutions, and environmental elements. Given the widespread effects of
climate change, it is imperative to have a comprehensive view on pertinent stakeholders when
considering sustainability (Steffen et al., 2015). Businesses have an impact on a variety of
actors and settings in addition to their primary business (Mitchell et al., 1997). Ekström and
Salomonson's (2014) description of a network of pertinent stakeholders for sustainability
highlighted the need for an all-encompassing perspective.

.
Additionally, cooperation is essential to sustainability (Todeschini et al., 2017) and the
recycled fibers sector as a whole (Bocken et al., 2016). To encourage and enable the use of
recycled fibers in their goods, several clothing manufacturers work with a variety of
stakeholders, including associations, producers, and recycling companies (Acne Studios,
2019; Filippa K, 2019; Globescan and C&A Foundation, 2019). As we move toward a
circular economy, cooperation becomes even more important (Globescan and C&A
Foundation, 2019; Pal et al., 2019). Stakeholder theory appears to be a suitable framework for
this undertaking, given its goal of balancing the interests of several stakeholders rather than
maximizing one (Freeman et al.2007).

The picture below (picture 1) shows the important stakeholders for this project based on the
previously indicated delineations and Roberts' framework (2003).

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Figure 1Relevant stakeholders for this project (Roberts, 2003, p. 162, with minor
modifications).

Here, the apparel firm acts as the core hub that links all parties involved. These parties
involved can be divided into four main groupings. The first category consists of
"authorizers," which are organizations like government agencies and regulatory bodies that
have the ability to control the enterprise. customers make up the second group, which
includes both environmentally conscientious and unconcerned customers. External influences
such as members of the community and media sources are included in the third phase. The
business partners of the firm, such as its staff, vendors, service providers, and rivals, are
included in the fourth category. Recognizing the environment as a stakeholder and including
it as a fifth category is a significant addition to this framework. This includes a variety of
natural components, including plants, soil, water, and living things.

The first step in understanding the constraints of the system that the apparel firm works
within is identifying these important stakeholders. Presenting a framework for
comprehending the contextual system in which these stakeholders operate—which focuses on
socio-technical systems and the dynamic linkages that connect them—is the next stage

3.3 Socio-technical systems-

Socio-technical (ST) systems are a theoretical construct that encompasses the development,
dissemination, and application of technology within the context of this project (Geels, 2004).

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It looks at the relationships and functionality of the components required for social functions.
In the context of this project, recycled fibers may be seen as an inventive technology used in
the apparel sector (Jawahir and Bradley, 2016). Users of this invention must make
adaptations in order for it to be integrated into practice; this is a mutually adaptive process
(Geels, 2004).
It's critical to understand that people continue to be an important component of ST systems,
which are not independent (Ibid.). Various social groupings, including businesses, industries,
governments, and organizations, are considered relevant players.

i) ST systems

ii) Human actors, organizations, and social groups

iii) Rules and institutions.

This paradigm emphasizes the simultaneous consideration of innovations and users, which is
a complement to the previously described stakeholder theory (Geels, 2004). The co-evolution
of technology and social actors is the main topic. Although there isn't enough data gathering
from several time periods in this project to do a thorough transition analysis, the framework is
still useful for talking about potential future approaches and plans including recycled fibers
and examining the relationships between different stakeholders. The pertinent parties
involved in these systems were presented in Section 3.2; Section 6 will delve deeper into
them and incorporate them into the ST framework with regard to recycled fibers.3.4 Business
models and sustainable business models

In addition to considering socio-technical systems and their relevant stakeholders, analyzing

the business model of companies is crucial in sustainability assessments within the fashion
sector. Business models serve as transformative agents and are pivotal for innovation (Pal
and Gander, 2018). Scholars widely acknowledge their importance for sustainability
(Bocken et al., 2014; Boons et al., 2013) and view them as valuable tools for analyzing
firms and their operational strategies (Osterwalder et al., 2005).

Essentially, a business model outlines the strategy a company employs to generate value in
its operations (Magretta, 2002). Sousa-Zomer and Cauchick-Miguel (2017, p. 569) define it
as a "representation of the underlying core logic of a firm and the strategic choices for
creating and capturing value within a value network." Its key elements include:
i) Value proposition: What products or services the company offers.
ii) Value creation and delivery: How the firm generates and delivers value.
iii) Value capture: How the company generates revenue and profit.

Moreover, business model innovation entails introducing novel business models and is
strongly related to sustainability initiatives (Geissdoerfer et al., 2018). More sustainable
business strategies are becoming more and more necessary, given the fashion industry's
reputation for being unsustainable (Pal and Gander, 2018). Still in its infancy, research on
sustainable fashion business models has ambiguous desired qualities (Todeschini et al.,
2017).

According to Boons et al. (2013), innovations and business models are essential to

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sustainable development. According to Bocken et al. (2014), business model innovation for
sustainability comprises adjustments that produce economic value while having a major
positive influence on the environment and society. This may entail larger corporations
introducing more environmentally friendly products or smaller enterprises implementing
whole new sustainable business practices (Caniato et al., 2012).

Within the context of this project, the creative idea is related to the sustainable business
model archetype "Create value from waste" that Bocken et al. (2014, p. 49) have developed.
This archetype includes the following:
i) Value proposition: Making use of trash as an important resource for manufacturing.
ii) Value generation and delivery: Forming partnerships and collaborations across sectors to
close resource loops and cut waste.
iii) Value capture: Cutting waste minimizes costs to the environment and economy while
generating new value.

There are also different forms of sustainable business models (SBMs), such as energy
optimization, ethical commerce, and service rental (Ibid.). However, other sustainability
concerns won't be investigated as thoroughly because the project's emphasis fits well with the
"Create value from waste" paradigm. It's critical to recognize
Using fibers made from recycled materials is consistent with the "Create value from waste"
paradigm as garbage is recycled to make new, economically valuable clothing. PET bottles
(Shirvanimoghaddam et al., 2020), used clothing and fabric (Ütebay et al., 2019), plant waste
(Rana et al., 2014), and other resources may all be used to produce recycled fibers (Bhatia et
al., 2014). In this setting, these items are viewed as valuable resources even though they
would normally be considered garbage. The utilization of recycled fibers can be facilitated by
cooperation between several parties, including recycling facilities, suppliers, designers, and
merchants.
According to Grobor and Milovanov (2017), including sustainability into brand management
strategies has several advantages, including improved profitability and positive effects on the
environment and economy. Sustainability programs improve a company's reputation by
drawing in customers who care about environmental concerns (Nishat Faisal, 2010).
According to Bocken et al. (2014), sustainability should ideally be integrated into a
company's main business strategy as opposed to serving as a simple counterweight to bad
characteristics. Businesses must prioritize the human element of their operations and provide
respectable working conditions for all workers, including linked workers (Boons et al., 2013;
Todeschini et al., 2017). Businesses must integrate holistic, social, and financial elements into
their plans in order to fully integrate sustainability (Bonn and Fisher, 2011).
Moreover, circular business models can be viewed as a subset of the SBM framework (Kant,
2012). One such archetype, the extending resource value model, involves utilizing waste as a
resource to create new products (Bocken et al., 2016). This model attracts new customers
while reducing material costs and potentially the final product price. Another sustainable
business model, industrial symbiosis, entails repurposing residues from one process as
resources for another process through collaboration and collection systems (Ibid.).

3.5 Drivers for sustainability

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As was previously said, incorporating sustainability into company operations is a difficult
task that frequently calls for a large amount of work. Nonetheless, scholarly research
proposes many incentives for businesses to engage in sustainable projects. Above all,
sustainability may improve a business's reputation and draw in customers who care about the
environment (Nishat Faisal, 2010). This is especially important for businesses looking to
rebuild their reputation after tragedies like the Bangladeshi factory collapse in Dhaka in 2013
(The New York Times, 2013). Furthermore, some businesses are truly driven by a
commitment to sustainability (Macchion et al., 2018).

Furthermore, a number of studies point to shared factors that encourage businesses of all
stripes to adopt sustainable practices. A commonly mentioned motivator is the possibility of
gaining a competitive edge through sustainability endeavors (Fraj-Andrés et al., 2009).
Management commitment to sustainability, which is frequently represented in company
values, is another important element (Caniato et al., 2012; Fraj-Andrés et al., 2009). On the
other hand, it is believed that adherence to rules and laws has little bearing on judgment
(Ibid.). Moreover, organizations' age and size continue to be important factors in determining
their sustainability strategy, with bigger, more established corporations usually setting the
standard (Neugebauer et al., 2016). Contextual considerations, company strategies, and
management personalities are some of the elements that impact the sort of strategy that is
implemented, whether it is planned or emergent (Neugebauer et al., 2016). Academics
contend that developing emergent strategies—which are defined by iterative creation and
modification via real-world experience—is frequently necessary to overcome difficult issues
like sustainability.

To completely comprehend the factors pushing fashion brands to create more sustainable
supply chains, additional investigation is necessary (Caniato et al., 2012). According to
Neugebauer et al. (2016), there are a number of hypothesized driving elements, such as
customer need for a wider variety of fashion alternatives, social pressure, and less pressure to
provide new collections quickly. Furthermore, the reasons for sustainability might differ
according on the size of the business. Cost containment and regulatory compliance are
secondary concerns for larger businesses, which are frequently motivated by corporate values
(Caniato et al., 2012). On the other hand, a mix of cost-cutting, cultural background, and
corporate principles may have an impact on smaller businesses (Caniato et al., 2012).

Furthermore, a categorization of fashion firms according to their sustainability policies is

suggested by Macchion et al. (2018):

i) Reactive strategy: In order to comply with regulations and avoid negative publicity and
criticism from non-governmental organizations, these businesses make little investments.
They do not place a high priority on acquiring a competitive edge and instead see
sustainability as a cost-saving strategy. This strategy is commonly seen in medium-sized,
older companies that have less managerial commitment and funding for sustainability
projects. These businesses place a higher priority on providing clients with high-quality items
than increasing their sustainabilityeffect.

ii) Proactive strategy: Businesses who use this tactic show a willingness to make significant

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changes for sustainability, going above and beyond simple regulatory compliance. These
might be smaller, more recent businesses or larger, more established organizations with or
without significant global activities. Senior management has a strong dedication to enhancing
corporate sustainability while attempting to shield the business from unfavorable press
coverage. These businesses put a lot of effort into improving the sustainability of their supply
chains, even if they encounter obstacles when trying to adopt sustainability changes,
especially from suppliers.

iii) Value-seeker strategy: These businesses succeed in environmental and social

sustainability because their senior management is fervently dedicated to the value that
sustainability generates. These businesses are usually well-established, sizable, and globally
oriented, constantly looking for ways to develop. By publishing sustainability reports and
gaining third-party certifications, they demonstrate their commitment to transparency.
Additionally, by actively involving consumers in recycling programs, they promote
sustainability and encourage the usage of more recycled materials. Nevertheless, obstacles
like the high price of sustainability upgrades and the trouble locating reliable suppliers might
appear.

These tactics shed light on a number of variables, including as a company's size, age, global
reach, and senior management commitment, that are pertinent to its sustainability plan. As
mentioned in section 5.1.1, the categorization makes it easier to organize businesses using the
data that has been gathered.

That being said, while categorizing methods, it is essential to have an analytical viewpoint.
Mintzberg (2000) emphasizes the dynamic and complex character of strategic decision-
making by proposing that strategies might be intentional, deliberate, emergent, realized, or
unrealized (see Figure 2).

Figure 2 Types of strategies (From Mintzberg, 2000, p. 24).

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grasp the dynamics of strategic decision-making inside businesses requires a grasp of the
strategy classification presented here. Mintzberg (2000) distinguishes between many kinds of
tactics according to their initial goals and results. When the planned strategy and the actual
results line up precisely, a purposeful strategy is implemented and the main goals of the
company are met. On the other hand, an unfulfilled strategy results in results that deviate
from the initial plans when the desired objectives are not met. There is also the idea of an
emergent strategy, which is derived from a sequence of little steps that over time mold the
realized strategy into what it is.
This strategy categorization is an essential part of the theoretical framework; it offers a prism
through which to see the empirical context and main conclusions in the chapters that follow.
It provides a thorough explanation of the circular economy idea, which is the main focus of
the study topic. A greater knowledge of pertinent stakeholders and their interactions is also
facilitated by the ideas of socio-technical systems and stakeholder analysis. Furthermore,
investigating different business models and sustainable business models (SBMs) gives us the
resources we need to properly evaluate the case firms' business models.
Last but not least, the talk of sustainability drivers, including business strategies and strategy
classification, offers insightful information about the goals and methods used by companies
to pursue sustainability activities. The core ideas presented in this chapter will be further
developed and connected to the data gathered and research topics tackled in the project's later
sections.

3.6 Previous studies about sustainability of the fashion industry and use of recycled fibers-

The fashion industry continues to face challenges related to sustainability, which has led to a
number of research attempting to solve its intricacies. Although the majority of the research
that has already been done has been on management techniques and consumer preferences
(Park and Lin, 2020), broader studies that include a larger variety of stakeholders are clearly
needed (Ekström and Salomonson, 2014). This emphasizes how crucial it is for businesses to
embrace a viewpoint based on socio-technical systems and stakeholder theory, which is in
line with the project's goals.
Furthermore, there is a wealth of literature on sustainable business models, but there aren't
many studies that concentrate on the sustainability drivers in the fashion sector (Ozdamar
Ertekin and Atik, 2015; Todeschini et al., 2017). As a result, academics support more
investigation into the driving forces behind sustainability in this industry (Todeschini et al.,
2017).
The scholarly literature provides a wide range of theoretical perspectives in the field of
recycled fibers. Numerous studies employ descriptive methodologies, giving summaries of
the use of recycled textiles in the fashion industry as well as in other contexts (Bhatia et al.,
2014; Sandin and Peters, 2018). (Moorhouse and Moorhouse, 2017; Shirvanimoghaddam et
al., 2020). Although they are less popular, quantitative analyses are nevertheless a choice
made by some researchers (Ütebay et al., 2019). Furthermore, life cycle studies are used to
investigate a variety of recycled textile products (Jawahir and Bradley, 2016), which is
consistent with a common methodology in talks on recycled fibers (Sandin and Peters, 2018).
The scope of research on recycled fibers varies greatly; studies on specific materials, such as
recycled cotton (Liu et al., 2019; Ütebay et al., 2019), design methods, and consumer
attitudes toward recycled fashion items (Moorhouse and Moorhouse, 2017; Park and Lin,
2020), as well as technical aspects like recycling techniques and waste types (Bhatia et al.,
2014; Shirvanimoghaddam et al., 2020). While some researchers use a network approach to
study the intersection of recycling and the circular economy in manufacturing contexts,
others investigate how to increase textile recycling and reuse by involving multiple

18
stakeholders (Ekström and Salomonson, 2014; Ekvall et al., 2015). (Jawahir and Bradley,
2016; Shirvanimoghaddam et al., 2020).
Moreover, research on luxury goods is not very common and is usually done from the
viewpoint of the consumer (Fionda and Moore, 2009). As a result, this project's adoption of a
corporate perspective from luxury businesses provides a novel viewpoint and makes it easier
to analyze sustainable practices in the luxury industry, which has received little attention
(Cimatti et al., 2017; Joy et al., 2012; Yang et al., 2017).

3.7 Excessive consumption poses a significant challenge within the fashion industry-
Fashion is known for its unsustainable practices, which are defined by high consumption
rates that result in a large amount of garbage being produced (Bhardwaj and Fairhurst, 2010;
Cimatti et al., 2017). The industry's sustainability problems are further exacerbated by the
fact that social and environmental concerns are present at every level of the production
process (Curwen et al., 2013). Academics recommend that sustainability measures be
implemented and that environmental challenges in the fashion supply chain be made more
widely known (Chung and Wee, 2008; Smith, 2003).

The increasing amount of clothing that is consumed in Europe is a major cause for worry;
between 1996 and 2012, purchases increased by 40% (European Environment Agency, 2014,
p. 107). Niinimäki and Hassi (2011) ascribe this tendency in part to business structures that
encourage increased apparel manufacturing and consumption. Only a small portion of
garment waste is recycled globally; the majority ends up in landfills or incinerators (Ellen
MacArthur Foundation, 2017a, p. 20). As a result, there is a great deal of potential to improve
industrial sustainability by supporting recycling initiatives and reassessing business models.

Nevertheless, there are several obstacles in the way of making fashion more environmentally
friendly. Various obstacles point to an underlying contradiction between fashion and
sustainability, such as a lack of openness, an emphasis on economic expansion, a lack of
understanding and confidence from outside parties, consumer behavior, and aesthetic
considerations (Ozdamar Ertekin and Atik, 2015). Moreover, it is a difficult challenge to
achieve sustainability in the fashion industry without taking into account social and
environmental factors at every stage of the production process (Karaosman et al., 2016). In
order to overcome these obstacles and bring fashion into line with sustainable principles,
coordinated efforts and creative solutions are needed.

19
 Chapter 4. Case studies of European Nordic countries-
This chapter describes the case companies in more details and presents the primary findings
for each of them. It summarizes the content of the sustainability reports and other relevant
documents about the use of recycled fibers by the case companies.

4.1 Acne Studios-

Founded in 1996 with its headquarters located in Stockholm, Sweden, Acne Studios has
grown its activities around the world, employing over 800 people and running 60 stores in
Europe, North America, and Asia (Acne Studios, 2019, 2021a, p. 3). The brand is classified
as high-fashion, with dresses costing between 1600 and 5000 SEK. It specializes in a variety
of fashion products, including ready-to-wear garments, footwear, denim, and leather goods
(Acne Studios, 2021b).

Acne Studios is well-known for its dedication to quality, and it carefully crafts each of its
items to guarantee longevity and durability (Acne Studios, 2019). In order to expedite
product repairs and actively support consumers in the repair process, the firm also stresses
sustainability by holding onto spare parts from preceding collections (Ibid.). The realization
that environmental risks—most notably, biodiversity loss and climate change—have a direct
impact on their commercial operations serves as a driving force behind their commitment to
sustainability (Ibid., p. 4). Acne Studios reaffirms in their 2018–2019 sustainability report
that they want to address ethical, social, and environmental issues related to their goods
(Ibid.). The firm has increased efforts in developing and manufacturing items with
sustainability in mind, using more sustainable fibers such recycled cotton, wool, down,
polyester, polyamide, and recycled polyester, acknowledging the intricacy of fashion supply
chains (Ibid.).

9% of the clothing manufactured by Acne Studios in the 2018–19 fiscal year was made with
sustainable materials, such as recycled fibers (Ibid., p. 10). Since the firm also views other
textiles, such organic and responsibly sourced fibers, as sustainable, it is unclear how much
of the 9% is made up of recycled fibers. Even so, Acne Studios wants to employ a lot more
recycled fibers. By 2030, they want to use 100% sustainable materials, with 40% coming
from recycled fibers (Ibid., p. 8). The corporation has set goals for each product and season in
order to achieve these objectives.

Acne Studios interacts with a range of stakeholders, including other companies, educational
institutions, unions, organizations, the media, and legislators, in an effort to highlight the
value of teamwork in sustainability initiatives. The business also works with Renewcell, a
Swedish company that specializes in recycling viscose and lyocell fibers from used cotton
clothing. Additionally, Acne Studios provides excess fabric and materials to Swedish design
schools (Ibid.).

20
4.2- Filippa K –

Swedish company Filippa K was founded in 1993 and places a strong emphasis on durability,
thoughtful consumption, and classic style (Filippa K, 2021c). Their product line consists of
athletics and ready-to-wear for men and women. It is sold online, in 700 merchants' locations
globally, and in 50 outlets (Filippa K, 2019, p. 9). Dresses from Filippa K, which vary in
price from 800 to 3900 SEK, are available for purchase online. The brand is known for its
commitment to classic, high-quality design and is considered high-fashion (Filippa K,
2021a).

A fundamental component of Filippa K's business identity is sustainability, which aims to

change the way the fashion industry views the world and inspire consumers to treasure their
clothing longer (Filippa K, 2019). As stated by the firm, "Everything we do at Filippa K
follows the four Rs: Reduce, Repair, Reuse, and Recycle" (Ibid., p. 15), circularity is a vital
principle that demonstrates this dedication. But changing the way the industry thinks and acts
is difficult, especially considering the uncontrollable social and environmental problems in
the supply chain (Ibid.). Despite being outside of the company's direct control, the textile
sector in particular is emphasized for its enormous influence on climate change and eco-
toxicity over a product's lifetime (Ibid., p. 13).

Filippa K aims to include recycled materials into their clothing; the brand showcases a range
of recycled fibers on its website, such as recycled cashmere, wool, polyester, recycled cotton,
and recycled polyamide (Filippa K, 2021b). The business also supports alternative
sustainable resources, such organic and properly sourced products. As of 2019, 69% of the
fibers used in Filippa K goods were more sustainable, and 5% of their products used recycled
fibers (Filippa K, 2019, p. 27, 30). Recycled polyester is notably used extensively—it makes
about 78% of the polyester the firm uses (Ibid., p. 30). By 2030, the goal is to raise the
percentage of sustainable fibers used to 100% (Ibid., p. 27).

To improve product traceability, Filippa K works with partners. To track fibers back to their
production sources, the company partners with TrusTrace. In addition, the firm hopes to
recycle waste polyester goods from the industry as a resource through the "From Waste to
Fashion" program in partnership with Ax International. To investigate fresh approaches to
sustainability, cooperation is extended to non-profits, vendors, and other companies.
Additionally, since 2015, Filippa K has started a number of circular activities, such as a
customer collecting program and a secondhand store in Stockholm. Additionally, they
support product repair by providing customer care support and skilled people (Ibid.).

21
4.3 Ganni-

The 2000-founded Danish fashion company Ganni is well-known for its vivid and daring
designs (Ganni, 2019). Ganni's dresses, which range in price from 1200 to 5900 SEK and are
of remarkable quality, place the brand in the high-fashion segment (Ganni, 2021). Ganni has
worked hard to increase the amount of recycled materials, such cotton, polyester, wool, and
leather, that are used in its clothing because it emphasizes sustainability in the manufacturing
and consumption of fashion (Ganni, 2019, 2020). The corporation acknowledges its
obligation to develop novel solutions and reduce environmental harm, and strives to provide
collections that have a neutral or positive impact (Ibid.). But Ganni admits that tracing its
supply chain can be challenging and that sustainable fashion consumption is a difficulty
(Ibid.). In spite of these obstacles, the business started the Fabric for the Future project to
investigate novel materials via R&D (Ibid.). However, considering how the textile industry is
changing, it is still unclear if these materials will be profitable (Ibid.).

In the future, Ganni intends to engage in fiber recycling trial projects and employ more post-
consumer textile waste (Ganni, 2020). The company's goal is to upcycle all of its cotton
deadstock into new furniture and interior goods by 2022. Additionally, it plans to launch four
new idea projects per year to make use of waste and fabric deadstock (Ganni, 2019).
Furthermore, Ganni has established a number of objectives for the next years, such as
obtaining 20% of designs based on circular principles by 2022, sourcing 100% of wool from
certified or organic sources by 2021, and guaranteeing that all cotton, viscose, and polyester
used are more sustainable by 2023 (Ibid.).

In order to accomplish these objectives, Ganni has collaborated with SOEX, a German
business that resells unsold stock or recycles goods into fibers, and I:CO, a company that
facilitates the collection of post-consumer clothes and textile waste in stores (Ganni, 2020).
Additionally, circular measures have been put into practice, including raising the amount of
post-consumer clothing and footwear collected and providing rental services through Ganni
Repeat (Ganni, 2019, 2020).

4.4 House of Dagmar-

Established in 2005, House of Dagmar is a Swedish fashion company that has a strong
commitment to sustainability. The firm bases its strategy around three main pillars, namely
outstanding fabric quality, creative design, and sustainable manufacturing techniques (House
of Dagmar, 2021c). The brand is sometimes categorized as high fashion because of its
reputation for producing elegant clothing, classic patterns, and premium pricing—dresses on
their website may cost anywhere from 3000 to 4000 SEK (House of Dagmar, 2021a). Its
commitment to tackling the fashion industry's environmental effect and accelerating positive
change is fundamental to its ethos (House of Dagmar, 2019). Although it is aware of the
difficulties ahead, the firm hopes to provide 100% sustainable collections and become carbon
neutral in its manufacturing by 2025 (House of Dagmar, 2018, 2019).

House of Dagmar has identified a number of crucial efforts to help achieve these lofty goals
(House of Dagmar, 2018):
- Create new alliances to improve product lifecycle data collecting.
- Create total transparency in all aspects of its supply chain.

22
- Only use sustainable fibers in their clothing.
- Increase the amount of recycled fibers included.
- Create a thorough plan to attain production with no waste.

at order to encourage product circularity, the firm also intends to provide repair and recycling
services at its retail locations (House of Dagmar, 2019). Furthermore, House of Dagmar
already chooses materials carefully for its clothing, including recycled polyester, cotton, and
linen in addition to regenerated wool and cashmere (House of Dagmar, 2021b). The firm
added 25% more sustainable fibers, such as recycled fibers, to its goods in 2019 (House of
Dagmar, 2019). Interestingly, they emphasize sustainable sourcing by using recycled yarn in
the creation of all knitted viscose dresses. Considering that 71% of its carbon dioxide impact
is related to fiber manufacturing, House of Dagmar placed a high priority on using more
recycled fibers (Ibid.).

4.5 Gina Tricot-

Established in 1997 in Borås, Sweden, Gina Tricot is a fashion company that employs over
1900 people. It has over 160 locations throughout Northern Europe in addition to an e-
commerce platform, and its headquarters are still located there (Gina Tricot, 2019, 2021a).
Gina Tricot, a fast-fashion company, places a premium on affordability. Dresses may be
found online for as little as 6 EUR, with prices ranging from 20 to 99 EUR (Gina Tricot,
2021b). The business, which boasts of being able to launch exclusive collections into stores
as soon as two weeks following their development, fits the fast-fashion model with its quick
turnover of mass-produced collections (Gina Tricot, 2021a).

Gina Tricot publishes an annual sustainability report, which tries to encourage change in the
fashion industry through goal-setting and continuous efforts toward more sustainable
production—despite the fast fashion sector's reputation for sustainability issues (Gina Tricot,
2019). The firm makes use of a range of sustainable materials, such as fabrics that are
organic, ethically produced, and recycled; recycled cotton is the main type of recycled fiber
that is utilized in their goods (Gina Tricot, 2021c). But just 1.3% of the more sustainable
fibers used in goods are derived from recycled materials, whereas 57% come from organic
and ethical textiles (Gina Tricot, 2019, p. 5). In an effort to boost revenue while lessening
environmental effect, Gina Tricot highlights the advantages of redesigning products using
sustainable resources like scraps and repurposed materials (Ibid.).

Gina Tricot works with Renewcell and the Swedish company Aéryne to further improve
sustainability initiatives. The two companies focus on using cotton waste and leftovers to
generate new fibers for clothing and creating a collection made completely of leftover
materials (Gina Tricot, 2021c). Transitioning to more sustainable methods is still difficult,
especially if you want to use solely recycled polyester in your products (Ibid.). Furthermore,
increasing supply chain openness continues to be a challenging undertaking for the fashion
industry as a whole (Ibid.). In order to lessen environmental effect and encourage circularity
in product design, Gina Tricot emphasizes the value of alliances and close engagement with
stakeholders (Gina Tricot, 2019).

23
The company's circular activities include repurposed client return collections, in-store
customisation and repair services, collection locations within shops, and cloth rental services
that have been available since 2012 (Ibid.). In spite of these initiatives, the business intends to
demonstrate its continued commitment to sustainability and circularity by raising the
collection from post-consumer clothing by 50% by 2020 (Ibid., p. 36).

4.6 Pure Waste-

Established in 2013, Pure Waste is a Finnish clothing brand that sets itself apart from the
competition by using only 100% recycled materials in the manufacturing of its products. This
reflects the firm's basic dedication to sustainability (Pure Waste, 2021a). Purposefully
avoiding the use of virgin materials, Pure Waste gathers textile waste in India and repurposes
it into new goods in an effort to spur change toward a future free of textile waste (Ibid.,
2021c). The sustainable business model (SBM) concept of "creating value from waste" is the
foundation of Pure trash's creative business strategy, which defies easy categorization into
either high-end or fast-fashion (Bocken et al., 2016).

Pure Waste stands apart from fast fashion even though their products, like a 45 EUR (~460
SEK) dress, are priced similarly. Instead, they offer classic, understated designs that
discourage overindulgence in consumption, rather than constantly changing their collections
or designs (Pure Waste, 2021b; Fletcher, 2010). Pure Waste is positioned as a pioneer in
sustainable fashion because to its innovative strategy that questions conventional industry
norms. Driven by the unsustainable methods of the fashion industry, Pure Waste aims to
lessen the environmental effect of the sector globally and serve as a model for other apparel
firms (Pure Waste, 2021c).

The business's attempts to find recycled materials through a forerunner company named
Costo in 2009 have paid off, as seen by their success in using recycled fibers. This finally led
to the development of their own textiles in 2010 (Pure Waste, 2021a). Pure Waste actively
collaborates with partners, suppliers, and stakeholders to improve sustainable practices,
acknowledging the importance of cooperation and collaborations (Ibid., 2021c). Even with
these successes, there are still obstacles to overcome, such the need to develop more
environmentally friendly substitutes for polyester in their fiber mixes by the goal year of
2025 (Pure Waste, 2019, p. 38). By obtaining longer cotton fibers and encouraging the
collecting of post-consumer goods for recycling into composite materials, the firm also hopes
to improve the recyclability of its products (Ibid., p. 35).

For Pure Waste, partnerships are essential since they allow them to manufacture items for
other companies and participate in a variety of Finnish and worldwide initiatives (Pure
Waste, 2019). Pure Waste aims to show that even a tiny business can accomplish major
sustainability milestones and contribute to a more ecologically conscious fashion industry by
means of ongoing collaboration and innovation.

24
 Chapter 5. Analysis of case study companies-
An overview of the case firms' utilization of recycled fibers is provided in this chapter. It
highlights the motivations for and obstacles to fiber recycling, along with the prospects for
the future that are included in the examined materials. A broad summary of the several
ongoing partnerships pertaining to circularity and the usage of recycled fibers comes next.
Following that, a summary of the extra circular activities per case firm that enable resource
loop slowing is provided. Lastly, section 5.3 concludes with an illustration of the socio-
technical systems of the fashion business.
5.1 Sustainability and use of recycled fibers-

Data collected about the strategies, drivers, challenges, future perspectives and collaboration
are summarized for all case companies and linked to the theoretical framework chapter

5.1.1 Strategies and motivations-

It's important to note that, rather than concentrating just on recycled fibers, a large portion of
the information from the case firms is relevant to the larger issue of sustainability before
diving into the study of the driving forces. However, it is important to talk about and take into
account during the analysis since it might act as a motivator for the use of recycled fibers.
Numerous factors can influence sustainability drivers, as discussed in chapter 3.6. Based on
the research of Macchion et al. (2018), a classification of the various sustainability tactics
used by fashion brands was presented in that area. It is essential to consider that the attributes
of sustainable business models are still somewhat ill-defined (Todeschini et al., 2017),
meaning that nothing is definitive.

In light of this, none of the example firms seem to meet the criteria for becoming a reactive
company according to this theoretical framework. They all use recycled materials in their
goods and show a strong commitment to sustainability on a number of fronts.

Furthermore, by publishing sustainability reports or providing in-depth coverage of

sustainability on their websites, all example firms exhibit a minimal degree of managerial
commitment to sustainability. As a result, the proactive approach class is the next group that
they connect with, and Acne Studios, Ganni, and Gina Tricot all appear to fit into it very
well. Being proactive suggests that these companies have motivations beyond merely
adhering to regulations and that their sustainability might yet be enhanced. This is
demonstrated by their significant efforts in a number of sustainability areas as well as by their
initiatives to improve the use of recycled fibers in their goods.

Still, it doesn't seem like these three businesses value sustainability as much as Pure Waste,
House of Dagmar, and Filippa K. These later companies seem to have adopted a
sustainability-focused corporate strategy early on, basing choices on sustainability guidelines.
They fit within the value-seeker approach because of their strong management commitment,
which drives them to continuously improve their sustainability processes. Their openness and
thorough sustainability reports support this categorization even further.

Given their modest size and primary focus on Scandinavia, Macchion et al. (2018)'s
suggestion of strong internationalization is the only one that does not fully apply to these

25
enterprises. Nevertheless, as will be covered in more detail in section 5.1.2, their modest size
may not automatically rule them out but rather provide new difficulties.

Moreover, the categorization of case firms is grounded in secondary empirical data and
mirrors their tactics that they have disclosed. This implies that communication and real
behaviors could not always coincide. It can only evaluate what the brands choose to say
because it is based on papers that are made accessible to the public. The corporations could
be working on other projects, but they might not be made public. However, this
categorization offers a useful foundation for doing a thorough analysis of the papers produced
by the firms.

Still, this categorization doesn't go into great detail about the companies' reasons for using
recycled fibers and sustainability. To learn more about the firms' goals, it is thus required to
review their sustainability reports and other papers. The driving forces outlined in these
publications are mostly consistent and center around sustainability. Their sustainability
initiatives encompass more than just the recycled fiber theme; the corporations have not made
apparent what motivates them in this regard. However, a number of overarching patterns are
revealed by the examined papers, as listed in Table 1

Motivational aspects

Company Facilitate Take Be a leader Desire to Increase

change responsibility sustain their profit
within the business
fashion operations
industry
Acne Studios X Yes X Yes X

Pure Waste Yes Yes Yes X X

House of Dagmar Yes Yes X Yes X

Filippa K Yes X Yes X X

Ganni X Yes X X X

Gina Tricot Yes X X Yes Yes

Table 1 Synopsis of the sustainability-driving factors cited by the case companies. An "X"
signifies that the brand has not referenced this aspect in the analyzed documents.
Within the world of luxury fashion, many sustainability drivers are shared by numerous
firms, but others are not as well-known. For instance, Acne Studios highlights how their
feeling of duty, which motivates their sustainability initiatives, and their understanding of
environmental challenges related to the garment production industry.

26
In the same way, Filippa K wants to set an example for the fashion business by being as
sustainable as she can, changing people's perspectives along the way. Like Acne Studios,
Ganni strives to lessen the environmental effect of their garments and shares a feeling of
responsibility for it. In addition to acknowledging their environmental impact, House of
Dagmar hopes to influence change in the fashion sector.

Regarding fast-fashion, Gina Tricot is dedicated to improving sustainability in order to

maintain their business and aims to spark change within the fashion industry. Through the use
of circular economy concepts, their use of recycled materials not only lessens their impact on
the environment but also has the potential to boost their profitability. This is in line with the
fundamental idea of separating resource usage from economic growth, which is a positive
step toward long-term profitability.

Pure Waste aims to lead by example and show that it is feasible to produce sustainable
clothes, even as a tiny firm, in order to promote worldwide sustainable change within the
fashion sector. Their early emphasis on sustainability establishes them as a market niche
player, adopting a novel business strategy oriented on sustainability.

The thematic content analysis identifies common themes among the sustainability
motivations of all these companies, including the recognition of sustainability as a potential
driver of profitability, the desire to catalyze a global shift in the fashion sector's mindset, a
sense of responsibility, aspirations to lead in sustainability, and a commitment to sustaining
their business operations. Even though these motifs keep coming up, it's crucial to recognize
that there could be other elements at play that weren't made clear in the papers under analysis.
Moreover, a mention lacking a context need not indicate contempt; it might instead indicate a
failure to communicate. To better understand the brands' intentions, more communication
with them would be required.

5.1.2 Future perspectives for recycled fibers –

In the future, all of the case firms want to increase their usage of recycled fibers and
sustainable materials. Table 2 provides an overview of their present situation along with their
goals and self-imposed deadlines. Since a lot of them deal with percentages, it's also shown
how their present use and goal differ to provide a clearer picture.

All of the firms want to utilize more recycled and sustainable fibers in their goods, yet when
it comes to timeframes, their aims are spaced out between 2021 and 2030. The sole exception
is pure garbage, which is currently using 100% recycled fiber and cannot possibly expand its
usage. Nonetheless, the business is always looking for methods to get better and lessen its
influence. It should be mentioned that, according to the most recent report, it has sadly been
unable to determine if Ganni has achieved or is achieving its aim for wool for 2021.

Furthermore, we may estimate the rate at which some of the firms hope to achieve their goals
if we suppose that they began working on those projects in 2020. The House of Dagmar sets
the largest annual increase since, in order to meet their 2025 target, they must raise their
27
 usage of sustainable materials by 25% annually. Up to 2030, it translates to an average 9.4%
annual growth in the usage of sustainable materials for Acne. Finally, in order for Filippa K
to meet their target by 2030, this rise would just need to reach about 3.1% annually. Lastly,
differences between their objectives and their implemented method may arise later
(Mintzberg, 2000). The firms' stated goals and other figures are all components of their
intended plans, but they could not come to pass. Another possibility is that an emerging
strategy may gradually take hold, particularly given how cutting-edge recycled materials are
as a technology.

Company Current status Objective Difference Deadline

Acne Studio 9% of garments 60% more +94% 2030

made of more sustainable
sustainable materials, 40%
materials recycled fibers
Filippa K Products made of 100% sustainable +31% 2030
69% sustainable fibers
fibers
Ganni Unknown 100% organic or - 2021
recycled wool

20% of style based 2022

on circulatory
principles

100% of cotton, 2023

viscose and
polyester
sustainable or
recycled
House of Dagmar 25% more 100% sustainable +75% 2025
sustainable fibers in materials with an
products increased share of
recycled fibers
Gina Tricot Products made of Increase share of - Unknown
1.3% recycled sustainable and
fibers recycled materials
Pure Waste Use of a blend of Find an alternative - 2025
cotton and polyester to the polyester
fibers

28
Table 2 The present status of the case companies concerning recycled fibers and their
objectives to achieve by a specified time frame, as inferred from the content of the
reviewed documents.
5.1.3 Challenges regarding sustainability and the use of recycled fibers-

The issues and difficulties associated with promoting sustainability and the usage of recycled
fibers are covered in section 5.1.1. Regretfully, the studied papers don't offer much particular
insight into the difficulties the example firms experienced, with the majority of those
difficulties being on more general sustainability concerns. These points, meanwhile, are still
pertinent to the conversation about recycled fibers. For instance, Acne Studios highlights the
problem of increasing their supply chain's sustainability by pointing out its complexity.
Similar to this, Filippa K emphasizes the difficulties in managing their whole supply chain
and the difficulty in bringing about a shift in the thinking and conduct of the industry. They
also acknowledge that it might not always be profitable to promote sustainability and
circularity. Ganni says that in order to enable more sustainable decisions, more investment is
required since they face challenges in guaranteeing the traceability of their supply chain.
Predictions regarding the usability and application of recycled fiber technologies in the future
are further complicated by their fast progress. It's important to remember that businesses
could decide not to discuss their difficulties in great detail. To learn more about the firms'
present problems, it would be beneficial to have more in-depth conversations with them
directly.

5.1.4 Relevant collaboration and partnerships-

Leading sustainability initiatives just locally presents a lot of difficulties because

sustainability problems frequently lie outside of the company's direct control. According to
Airike et al. (2016), partnerships are essential for tackling sustainability issues in a holistic
manner. This is in line with the stakeholder idea, which promotes businesses using their
operations to jointly produce long-term value (Freeman et al., 2007). Addressing complex
sustainability issues (Airike et al., 2016), advancing the shift to a circular economy
(Globescan and C&A Foundation, 2019; Pal et al., 2019), and encouraging innovation in
recycled fiber technologies (Bocken et al., 2016) all depend on working collaboratively with
a variety of stakeholders. The example firms have demonstrated their understanding of the
value of collaboration by working together to enhance sustainability practices and make
better use of recycled resources. For example, Acne Studios emphasizes its collaborations and
continuous communication with many organizations, including other companies, educational
institutions, unions, associations, the media, and legislators. The firm connects with design
schools to give extra materials, and it works with Renewcell to improve the recyclability of
its surplus cotton garments. Similar to this, Filippa K emphasizes its connections with
TrusTrace to improve supply chain traceability and Ax International to use waste polyester as
a fashion resource, in addition to its cooperation with NGOs, suppliers, and other brands.
Ganni highlights how it works with I:CO to enhance post-consumer trash collection in shops
and with SOEX to make unsold inventory easier to resell, upcycle, and recycle. Some
businesses, meanwhile, don't provide as much information about their alliances. House of
Dagmar, for example, states that it wants to establish new partnerships to improve data
collecting on product lifecycles, but it does not comment on particular cooperation connected
to textile circularity. Gina Tricot also acknowledges the value of working with stakeholders to
lessen environmental effect but does not identify partnerships. However, it's conceivable that
businesses have decided not to reveal all the specifics of their partnerships just yet, and more
information may be obtained by speaking with business officials.
29
5.2 Slowing down resource loops-

A complete strategy is necessary for the success of a sustainable circular business model
(Antikainen and Valkokari, 2016; Bocken et al., 2014). Even if the example firms' extra
circular activities are not the main focus of this study, it is vital to take them into account in
our context. These efforts include post-consumer collecting, rental services, fabric remnant
donation, secondhand shop establishment, repair services, and upcycled collections,
according to the records that were studied. As discussed in section 3.1, many of these
initiatives seek to slow down resource loops, which is another way to put the concepts of the
circular economy into practice (Bocken et al., 2016). A overview of the actions taken by each
company is shown in Table 3.

Circular initiative

Company Postconsumer Renting Fabric Secondhand Repair Upcycled

collection services leftovers store services collections
donations
Acne X X Yes X Yes Yes
Studios
Filippa K Yes X X Yes Yes X

Ganni Yes Yes X X X Yes

House of To be X X X To be X
Dagmar implemented implemented
Gina Yes Yes X X Yes Yes
Tricot
Pure Yes X X X X Yes
Waste
Table 3 provides an overview of extra circular initiatives implemented by the case companies.
An "X" indicates that the brand has not undertaken such an initiative based on the content of
the analyzed documents.
Interestingly, several of the case firms have taken steps to improve product reuse and slow
down the resource cycle (Bocken et al., 2016). The emergence of rental services and second-
hand stores are two examples of how different consumers can use the same things.
Additionally, improving clothing's capacity to be repaired increases its longevity, which
slows down the loop. Additional programs, such fabric remnant donations, post-consumer
collection, and upcycled collections, are in line with the sustainable business concept of
"creating value from waste" (Ibid.), which views trash as a resource for making new goods.
These programs are directly related to the closing of the resource loop through the utilization
of recycled fibers. Value generation and delivery also heavily depend on cross-sectoral
collaboration between customers, designers, educational institutions, and other fashion
industry players.

30
5.3 Socio-technical system and related stakeholders-

The exploitation of recycled fibers by the case firms has been extensively discussed in
Chapters 5.1 and 5.2, which have laid the foundation for addressing each research issue
separately. To give a better picture of the issue and identify pertinent stakeholders using the
theoretical framework of ST systems, it is helpful to compile this data before diving into the
debate. This synthesis is essential to the research because it shows that the case firms have
realized how their activities affect more than just their own operations, which is a critical step
in the direction of sustainability (Mitchell et al., 1997). This is consistent with the basic
principles of stakeholder theory, which emphasizes that a company's performance depends on
taking into account a variety of stakeholders in addition to the management team (Freeman et
al., 2007). It is possible to build a ST system specifically for apparel firms by integrating the
pertinent parties listed in section 3.5 and the collaborations covered in section 5.1.4. Figure 5
shows a schematic illustration of this system.

Figure 3 Elements of the socio-technical system of clothing products (in black) and their
relevant stakeholders (in red). Circulatory elements are represented in blue (Based on Geels,
2004, pp. 900– 901, with minor modifications).
The ST characteristics of clothing manufacturing that are shown in Figure 3's left portion
include the use of labor, natural resources, tools, design, scientific knowledge, and education.
The distribution of clothing, together with the applicable laws controlling both domains,
serves to connect the production and application domains. The application domain on the
right side deals with how clothing are used, including facilities for upkeep and repair as well
as cultural importance. These components are linked to different players and stakeholders in
the system; these relationships are shown in red next to each piece.

Moreover, extra linkages are shown with blue arrows to add circularity to the system. The
simplest way to use circularity is to simply reuse the product, which is something that
customers may accomplish by wearing their clothes more than once. Customers have two
options if they choose not to reuse the products: either throw away the item or return used
clothing to collecting locations (such as thrift stores, collection bins, or charitable

31
organizations). If the clothing is gathered, it can be recycled into new items if it's in too bad
of shape, or it can be sold as used goods through the channels of clothing corporations or
charitable organizations. On the other hand, if the items are thrown away, they are considered
garbage and could be burned or placed in a landfill. As explained in section 3.5 of the SBM
"Create value from waste" by Bocken et al. (2014), there is also the option to reuse such trash
as a resource. Waste that is converted into a new resource also includes products that are
gathered but are not fit for resale. From this vantage point, creating a resource loop in the
system is possible.

The diagrammatic representation also emphasizes the necessity of stakeholder participation in

order to achieve the goal of incorporating circularity into the system. However, several
factors need to be taken into account in order to maximize circularity in the system. One such
element that is essential for reducing product consumption is the reuse loop at the consumer
level. This is important because, even if clothing is made from recycled materials, which
indicates that less resources were used in the production process, there is no assurance that
production and consumption would slow down and consequently result in fewer resources
being used. Further discussion of this issue might take place at the design and quality levels.
In particular, customers are more likely to repurpose clothing if it is classic and of excellent
quality. Both high-end brands that prioritize sustainability and quality, House of Dagmar and
Filippa K, seem to have a significant presence of these goods in their apparel lines.
Furthermore, Pure Waste sells classic and minimalist clothing, yet the quality of their
merchandise isn't stated clearly.

The two surviving high-end brands, Acne Studios and Ganni, provide colorful, fashionable
apparel that follows the latest styles in the industry. These clothes are likely to go out of style
fast and be ignored by customers despite their excellent quality. They still fall under the
category of "classic long-life model," nevertheless, because they are opulent and high-end
goods. On the other hand, Gina Tricot stresses the quick turnover of collections and
constantly monitors fashion trends, even if her clothing is of a lesser caliber than that of high-
end labels.

The slowing down of resource loops is another essential component of transitions towards
sustainable development. This project's emphasis on repair capability serves to illustrate this.
Circularity is encouraged by the fact that three of the six example companies—Acne Studios,
Filippa K, and Gina Tricot—already offer repair services to their clients. In the future, House
of Dagmar plans to introduce these kinds of services. While neither Ganni nor Pure Waste
specifically state repair services, it is logical to believe that Ganni, with its premium pricing
range, would be willing to help clients should the need arise. Pure Waste's capacity to provide
repair services may now be limited due to its lower size. Furthermore, there exists the
possibility of partnering with outside repair services; the firms have not yet addressed this
element, but it may be taken into consideration for further collaborations.

Furthermore, the ST system for clothing's schematic illustration emphasizes how important
customers are to a circular economy. Customers are shown here as the connection to
prolonging the life of clothing through reuse or donation, a concept that has traditionally been
associated with the end-of-life stage of items. Materials can still be retrieved even if they are
discarded; clothing businesses help with this process by setting up collecting stations. This is
an example of an adaptive endeavor that integrates innovation (recycled fibers) into practice
through a mutually adaptive process between businesses and customers. Finally, the
corporations have established a number of collaborations, most of which are focused on the

32
manufacturing side and involve workers, suppliers, designers, and researchers. These
collaborations are essential to the material cycle as well. It will be interesting to see how
these businesses, in their quest to improve their sustainability policies, fortify their ties with
stakeholders in order to augment and broaden their usage of recycled materials.

5.4 Discussion

The present chapter addresses and provides an analysis of the four research questions that
were previously formulated. These questions are as follows: "What are the drivers that
encourage fashion companies to develop recycled fibers? What are the challenges for
sustainability regarding fiber recycling? What are the future perspectives of fashion
companies regarding their use of recycled fibers?" The basic empirics are connected to
section 3 in order to achieve this.

5.4.1 Which drivers for using recycling fibers?

In order to answer the initial research question, "What are the stated motivations driving
fashion companies to invest in the development of recycled fibers?", it is necessary to look at
information about recycled fibers as well as communicated aspects related to larger
sustainability themes. This is because there isn't a lot of empirical data specifically on
recycled fibers. While this limits the accuracy of the answer, it is nevertheless a useful place
to start because recycled fibers are thought to be essential to sustainability (Caniato et al.,
2012). Building on this basis, more study may produce more meaningful results. Regarding
the reasons why the firms improved their global sustainability policies, some of the results
were in line with the literature's previous suggestions, however expressed in a slightly
different way. For example, Todeschini et al. (2017) suggested a trend in which increased
consumer knowledge of sustainability might drive a move towards more sustainable fashion,
possibly resulting in lower sales. This idea aligns with two motivations noted in this study
(section 6.1.1): businesses' need to maintain operations and boost revenue. One might also
argue that, in order to prevent a drop in sales, businesses want to show customers that they
are accepting responsibility—another incentive that this study suggests exists.

On the other hand, conflicting findings surfaced with respect to several of the factors put up
in the literature. Only one company, Gina Tricot, mentioned using recycled fibers as a means
to increase profits; the other two indicated that it was more of a financial burden. Some
studies suggested that the motivation behind using recycled fibers included the lower cost of
materials (Sung, 2015) and its potential to reduce costs and boost profits (Bhatia et al., 2014).
While Ganni pointed out that additional funding was required to achieve sustainability goals,
Filippa K stated that encouraging circularity and sustainability had not always been
financially advantageous for them. It's unclear if this difference stems from Gina Tricot's
business model, which is fast-fashion, while the other two serve more upscale markets.

However, as technology advances and becomes more accessible, this tendency could change
in the future and make using recycled fibers lucrative. Within a socio-technical system,
recycled fibers are seen as novel technology (Jawahir and Bradley, 2016), requiring
consumers to make adaptation efforts (Geels, 2004). It's possible that the expenses related to
creating, producing, and utilizing recycled fibers will go down in time, turning them into a
lucrative venture. Given that technology advancements like novel fibers are seen as catalysts
for sustainability, this may further push the fashion sector in that direction (Todeschini et al.,
2017). However, as will be covered in the following part, there are a number of technical and

33
financial issues that need to be resolved first.

5.4.2 What challenges are to be faced?

The case firms shed light on the study topic, "What are the identified obstacles and
difficulties for achieving sustainability in fiber recycling?" by recognizing a number of
challenges that must be solved in their quest of sustainability and greater use of recycled
fibers.

Apart from the before discussed financial issues, a notable challenge encountered by multiple
firms seems to be the modification of their supply chain. Acne Studios, Filippa K, and Ganni
all bring up concerns about the intricacy of their supply chain and uncontrollable
complications. It's interesting to note that all of these are high-end retailers, which may
indicate that they have greater difficulties than fast-fashion companies in changing their
supply chain. This discovery is consistent with Chesbrough's (2010) theory that the viability
of a company's business strategy significantly affects the integration of innovations such as
recycled fibers into the supply chain. In this particular context, the difference between fast-
fashion and high-fashion enterprises might perhaps be attributed to the latter's greater ease of
incorporating innovative aspects into their merchandise. Fast-fashion retailers are able to
respond quickly to changes in the market since they are used to having their collections rotate
quickly (Fletcher, 2010). This bolsters the claim made by Todeschini et al. (2017) that
incorporating recycled fibers into goods requires a redesign of the production process, which
presents difficulties. Gina Tricot highlights that fast-fashion firms may have an edge in this
area due to their fast-paced manufacturing rhythm, which might enable them to make money
from their items more rapidly.

Circularity requires quality, therefore being able to quickly add recycled fibers shouldn't
come at the expense of quality. Bocken et al. (2016) and Lee et al. (2001) both stress how
crucial it is for items to be able to be recycled. Furthermore, McDonough and Braungart
(2002) contend that downcycling materials undermines real circularity since it only postpones
the moment at which things are deemed garbage. Even trailblazing and creative businesses
like Pure Waste are finding it difficult to meet this enormous task. It will take future thinking
to create a genuinely circular economy.

Furthermore, locating and using recycled fibers in goods presents difficulties because this is a
relatively young industry. For example, Ganni established a research and development team
to investigate and apply novel recycled materials. These challenges align with the research of
Todeschini et al. (2017), which indicates that restricted material options and availability
impede the creation of novel products utilizing recycled fibers.

34
5.4.3What could be expected in the future?

In their sustainability reports and other publications, fashion firms often address the issue of
the future, which offers important context for understanding the study question "What are the
projected outlooks and aspirations of fashion companies concerning their utilization of
recycled fibers?"

According to Todeschini et al. (2017), the rising acceptance of the circular economy idea is
driving a change in the fashion industry toward more environmentally friendly methods since
it promotes creative design strategies and collection structures. It is clear that this trend is
gaining steam because several fashion brands that are included in this survey are supporting
circularity. These businesses have a significant dedication to improving their environmental
footprint and sustainability policies. The potential advantages and ease of using recycled fiber
are expected to increase as technology advance and implementation viability increases. As a
result, it is reasonable to anticipate that circularity projects and the use of recycled materials
will grow in the future, in line with the goals of every business. But it will take some time
before these methods truly come to fruition.

Still, difficulties are present. Apart from the challenges encountered by businesses, there are
other impediments that need to be tackled to optimize the utilization of recovered fiber.
Dahlbo et al. (2017) point out the lack of research on chemicals used in the recycling process
and advise against generating new markets in place of balancing new production. Similar to
this, Sandin and Peters (2018) stress that if recycling procedures depend on fossil fuels or if
the eliminated production processes were not very polluting, recycled fibers might not
provide appreciable environmental advantages. Furthermore, Bocken et al. (2016) stress the
significance of taking into account the finished products' recyclability as well as the
effectiveness of the recycling process in the manufacturing of fiber. Although Pure Waste is
making a concerted effort to enhance the latter, it is unknown whether other businesses are
attending to issues related to recyclability because they have not made this information
public. For any organization to appropriately analyze the environmental impact of using
recycled fiber, these areas need more research. Furthermore, additional consumer-oriented
research is required to assess the sustainability of recycled materials in the future.

Additionally, it is important to take into account the social sustainability of products, as

fashion items can only be called sustainable if the social and environmental elements of
manufacturing are taken into account (Karaosman et al., 2016). In order to improve
circularity and sustainability in manufacturing processes, Bocken et al. (2016) also stress how
crucial it is to take a comprehensive approach, which will have an impact on the advancement
of recycled materials in the future.

5.5 Conclusions of the case study

This chapter summarizes the contributions of this case studies. It also suggests themes for
future research that would allow to gain more insights about how circular economy and
fashion relate to each other.

35
5.5.1 Circular economy for a more sustainable future-

This study's goals were to examine how the business models of fashion firms fit the notion of
the circular economy and to estimate future developments. The study's contributions are
concentrated on how businesses in the fashion sector might apply circular economy
principles. The causes, difficulties, collaborations, and prospects for the future as outlined in
the public sustainability reports of the example firms were examined in order to address the
four study questions.

The main conclusions show that fashion firms are motivated by a sense of leadership,
accountability, and a desire to maintain their business operations to improve sustainability
and include recycled fibers into their procedures. This well-rounded strategy implies a
commitment that goes beyond only financial rewards. Furthermore, their aspirations for the
future, partnerships, and acceptance of new circular projects demonstrate a progressive
mindset that is upbeat about the possibilities of sustainability and recycled fibers. While there
are still obstacles to overcome and the use of recycled fibers is still relatively new, businesses
want to increase it in the future. It is possible to operate a business focused on sustainability,
as Pure Waste shows.

The exploitation of recycled fibers by fashion firms to improve their operations and their
present sustainability policies are better understood thanks to empirical data. The report also
clarifies the steps that the fashion industry has to do in order to progress and further
incorporate the usage of recycled fibers. It also provides insightful information about the high
fashion industry's business environment, a field that has received little attention before.

Lastly, it's critical to acknowledge that recycled fibers may be used as a marketing strategy to
appeal to people who are concerned about the environment. Nonetheless, one should continue
to question businesses' dedication to environmentally friendly consumption methods.
However, these initiatives are a start in the right direction, and this investigation found no
proof of greenwashing. The major issue that has to be answered is if these efforts are
sufficient or if time is passing more quickly than expected. The solution to this question will
only become clear in the future.

5.5.2 Future research-

The objectives of this study were to analyze the alignment between the business models of
fashion companies and the concept of the circular economy, as well as to forecast future
trends and advancements. The research primarily focuses on the use of circular economy
ideas by enterprises in the fashion sector. In order to address the four research objectives, the
public sustainability reports of the sample businesses were analyzed to identify the reasons,
obstacles, cooperation, and possibilities for the future.

The primary findings indicate that fashion companies are driven by a feeling of leadership,
responsibility, and a commitment to enhancing sustainability by using recycled fibers into
their operations. This comprehensive technique entails a dedication that extends beyond mere
monetary incentives. Moreover, their ambitions for the future, collaborations, and embrace of
new circular initiatives showcase a forward-thinking attitude that is optimistic about the
potential of sustainability and reused materials. Although there are remaining challenges to

36
address and the use of recycled fibers is still relatively nascent, businesses are eager to
enhance its utilization in the future. Operating a sustainability-focused firm is feasible, as
demonstrated by Pure Waste.

Empirical data has provided a clearer understanding of how fashion enterprises are utilizing
recycled fibers to enhance their operations and current sustainability practices. The paper also
elucidates the necessary measures that the fashion industry must do in order to advance and
more fully integrate the utilization of recycled fibers. Additionally, it offers valuable
knowledge on the commercial landscape of the high fashion industry, a sector that has
hitherto been overlooked.

Lastly, it is crucial to recognize that the utilization of recycled fibers may serve as a
marketing tactic to attract those who are environmentally conscious. However, it is important
to persistently scrutinize firms' commitment to adopting ecologically sustainable
consumption practices. Nevertheless, these measures represent a first step towards the desired
outcome, and this inquiry has not uncovered any evidence of deceptive environmental
marketing practices, also known as greenwashing. The primary concern that has to be
addressed is if these endeavors are enough or if time is elapsing at a faster rate than
anticipated. The resolution to this inquiry will only become evident in the future.

37
Chapter 6. Technology assessment: closing material loops through
textile recycling-
The use of secondary raw materials to create new clothing items is a commonly employed
method to enhance the recycling content of clothes. Nevertheless, this technique is mostly
used for producing garments made from artificial fibers, using different plastic items as raw
materials (such as Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles). Although research and
development efforts are ongoing, there are presently no commercially available methods for
using biological waste, such as waste from food production, as a replacement for raw
materials in the manufacturing of new textile materials. In the end-of-life stage, fibers
obtained from discarded clothing are recovered and used to create textiles for non-garment
applications. This is usually done by open-loop recycling, which mostly entails down-
cycling. In order to achieve complete closed-loop recycling of garbage generated by
consumers, it is necessary to utilize specialized recycling technologies that involve many
processes like sorting, separation, shredding, and discolouring. In contrast, using single-
origin pre-consumer waste, which refers to clothing constructed from mono-fibres, need
fewer intricate methods for closed-loop recycling. The next chapter assesses both known and
cutting-edge recycling technologies that can effectively address different recycling methods.

Figure 4 Textile recycling approaches as well as technologies and their integration into
product life cycle (depiction based on Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2017a, Greenblue 2017,
Norden 2014, Norden 2017, Re:newcell 2018)

38
6.1 Established recycling technologies-

Chemical recycling is presently the most sophisticated method for recycling synthetic fibers,
with polyester being the predominant material used. During this procedure, textile materials
undergo decomposition by the introduction of different chemicals, leading to the formation of
individual monomers that possess a similar level of quality as those obtained from new
materials (FairWertung e.V. 2018). Although it is theoretically possible to recycle mixed-
fiber products, the resulting end-product is restricted to items created from individual fibers,
such as polyester functional sports shirts. It is important to mention that most recycled fibers
are not obtained from clothing that has been used by consumers, but rather from other types
of old plastics, such as PET bottles. Teijin, a Japanese corporation, has successfully
implemented a method for recycling post-consumer textiles. This process involves extracting
polyester from old garments, PET bottles, and PET trash generated during manufacture
(Norden 2016) (Personal communication 2024). While the technique may be deemed
advanced, it still has constraints, since not all polyester goods can undergo processing using
this approach. Nevertheless, it has the ability to attain a comparable level of excellence as
virgin materials, and the manufacturing of 100 percent recycled polyester is viable. Teijin's
estimations indicate that despite an impressive 84 percent reduction in energy usage
compared to other recycling procedures, the cost of this technique remains ten to twenty
percent higher than utilizing fresh materials (Norden 2014). Furthermore, a substantial
proportion of the pre-consumer PET now accessible on the market is not specifically intended
for reuse in the textiles sector. For example, the catalyst antimony, which is frequently
employed in the manufacturing of PET, is a hazardous material that remains present in the
product throughout its entire lifespan (Bundesinstitut für Risikobewertung 2015).

Parley and Adidas have formed a partnership to engage in established chemical recycling.
This process involves using discarded fishing nets and plastic trash from the oceans to
produce practical sportswear. Although this method successfully increases public knowledge
about the problem of pollution caused by waste in the ocean, particularly when well-known
football clubs wear jerseys made from such materials, experts who were interviewed warn
that it is not sufficient to completely solve the problem of plastic waste in the ocean or
achieve a closed-loop recycling system in the textile industry. Chemical recycling, however
beneficial, poses environmental difficulties because of its comparatively elevated energy
usage (Leonas 2017). The process entails the sorting, washing, and decolorizing of materials.
The existence of chemicals such as plasticizers in old plastics adds more complexity to the
process (FairWertung e.V. 2018). At now, the cost of recycled polyester fibers is similar to
that of conventional ones, as stated by Piatschek in 2017. However, a substantial amount of
financial resources is necessary to expand the technology for commercial purposes, according
to Leonas in 2017.

Research is now being conducted on the recycling of chemical monomers for fibers made
from materials other than plastic, such as cotton and wool. One project, called RESYNTEX,
which is supported by the European Union under the Horizon 2020 program, is investigating
possible solutions for this. Although this technique has the potential to successfully eliminate
dangerous chemicals, it is expected to be expensive mainly because of the difficulties
involved in separating the monomers. Although there are continuous research endeavors, the
chemical recycling methods for natural fibers are not yet fully developed in terms of
technology or economic viability (Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2017a).

39
In contrast, mechanical recycling procedures are mostly used to recover natural fibers such as
cotton garments. This process entails categorizing garments according on their color and
material, and subsequently subjecting them to shredding, ripping, unraveling, grinding,
defibrating, and fiber cutting. Nevertheless, these procedures unavoidably result in the
reduction, debilitation, and impairment of the fibers, leading to diminished characteristics,
functioning, and excellence. As a result, recycled fibers may now only substitute for around
30 percent of natural fibers. Additionally, the use of admixtures in the initial material further
reduces the quality of recycled fibers. As a result of these restrictions, the majority of natural
fibers are not reused to create new clothing. Instead, they are repurposed for different uses
such as insulation, industrial cleaning cloths, bath mats, industry wipes, or oil absorbent mats.
H&M use a recycling method for the post-consumer garbage gathered in their stores, which is
managed and recovered by SOEX and its subsidiary I:Collect (Piatschek 2017).

Typically, the environmental benefits of mechanical recycling procedures correspond to the

decreased environmental consequences of the replaced material, such as the adverse
repercussions of cotton growing. Nevertheless, there are trade-offs involved in this process
since it requires the use of energy, and if dangerous compounds are not filtered out
beforehand, they may persist in circulation. For example, bleaches are frequently employed
for the purpose of decolorizing. Due to its intricate nature, the procedure tends to be
somewhat expensive. The process of fabric recycling for industrial offcuts and leftover
materials, also known as pre-consumer waste, is not yet commonly used. However, it has
several benefits due to the normally high purity of these materials. This approach may also be
utilized for remanufacturing, namely by reassembling sections of intact fabric to produce new
clothes without the need for sophisticated equipment. Nevertheless, the pre-consumer waste
may not meet the required quality standards, and the act of shredding the fibers leads to their
reduction in length, which in turn requires the inclusion of new, unused fibers. However, it
appears to be conceivable to achieve a recycled content of up to 90 percent using garbage
generated before reaching the customer. In general, the method is ecologically sustainable,
and the usage of chemicals may be reduced as there is less requirement for color removal.
Nevertheless, this process requires a significant amount of manual effort, resulting in higher
expenses but also generating more employment opportunities. An important obstacle is the
irregular flow of materials and inadequate amounts of fabric to sustain financially feasible
operations. Experts interviewed propose that the establishment of connections between firms
might promote industrial symbiosis and facilitate the alignment of supply and demand for
pre-consumer trash.

Based on a recent study conducted by McKinsey, it is anticipated that the structure and main
drivers that impact international clothing value chains would see substantial changes in the
next 15 to 25 years. It is important to focus on developing trends like "nearshoring" (moving
sourcing bases closer to the market) and "automation" in order to create a more sustainable
and circular value chain in the fashion/textile industry.

6.2 Innovative closed-loop recycling technologies-

The aforementioned technologies mostly provide solutions for open-loop recycling, which
frequently leads to down-cycling. Textile-to-textile recycling systems that operate in a
closed-loop system are still in the developmental phase and have not yet been widely
commercialized or adopted in the market. However, there are several cutting-edge methods
for both artificial and organic fibers. Presently, there is much investigation being conducted

40
on the replacement of wood with discarded clothing composed of natural fibers as the raw
material for producing viscose fibers. Several of these technologies are approaching the phase
of scaling up and becoming commercially available. The subsequent section assesses these
developing technologies, scrutinizing their advantages as well as their disadvantages.

• Infinited Fiber (Relooping Fashion Initiative) -

The "infinited fiber" is a regenerated fabric made from textile waste that is rich in cotton and
other biomaterials like wood. The fiber, created together by the VTT Technical Research
Center of Finland and the Infinited Fiber Company, has the potential for endless recycling, as
implied by its name. The approach utilizes a carbamate cellulose dissolving technology,
employing conventional technologies from the pulp industry to eliminate polyester residues
from the cotton (EurekAlert! 2017). Significantly, this procedure maintains the quality of the
fiber, guaranteeing that it is equivalent to normal viscose fibers. In comparison to viscose
manufacture, infinited fiber provides significant environmental advantages. It necessitates
one-third less CO2-equivalents and 98% less water, while also eliminating the use of toxic
compounds such as carbon disulphide. As to the developer's statement, the technology is
expected to be 20 to 40% more cost-effective than other competing options. At now, there is
continuous industrial-scale testing being conducted, with the objective of making
improvements that will enable large-scale industrial manufacturing (The Infinited Fiber
Company 2018).

• Regarding the newcell pulp -

The re:newcell pulp, created at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, is a

significant advancement in the recycling of textiles. The business re:newcell was founded in
partnership with SKS Textile and H&M to market this technology. Since 2017, they have
been running the initial pilot facility in Sweden. The re:newcell technique involves shredding
post-consumer clothes and using a chemical solvent to break down the pieces into individual
molecules. This produces recycled dissolving pulp, which is then processed into viscose fiber
(Norden 2014). Significantly, this procedure (Launched in 2017) does not necessitate the use
of any detrimental chemicals, and the resultant fiber is of same or superior quality than virgin
fiber. When working with pure cotton, there is no need to add any new fiber, resulting in a
complete recycling rate of 100 percent. The output fibers are biodegradable, and the recycling
process is generally more ecologically sustainable compared to wood processing (personal
communication 2022). While the drying portion of the process is energy-intensive, it does not
exceed the energy requirements of traditional viscose manufacture. Although the fiber is of
excellent quality, certain attributes of the final products may provide difficulties during future
processing stages when compared to virgin materials. At now, the demonstration facility has
a yearly capacity of 7,000 tons, and there are intentions to establish a larger factory that can
produce 30,000 tons of re:newcell pulp per year. Although the existing factory is modest, it
incurs considerable expenses. However, it is anticipated that expanding the scale of the plant
would lead to cost advantages, primarily since the input material is essentially free (personal
communication 2024).

• Revolutionary chemical polymer recycling (Worn Again/HKRITA/Evrnu) -

Worn Again has developed a groundbreaking chemical polymer recycling technique for both
synthetic and natural fibers, revolutionizing the process of textile recycling. This unique
approach has been implemented in collaboration with renowned companies like as H&M and

41
Puma. The procedure commences by segregating and reclaiming polyester and cotton, then
employing distinct processing methodologies customized for each fiber category. According
to a personal correspondence in 2018, the process of dissolving and extracting embedded
impurities in polyester results in a resin intermediate. This intermediate is then converted into
virgin-equivalent polyester polymer without breaking it down into individual monomers. This
process helps to save energy. Nevertheless, energy usage continues to be quite elevated.
When cotton is dissolved and combined with dye and contaminant removal, it produces a
pulp that is similar to viscose. This pulp has the capacity to remove 20% of contaminants and
may be used with many types of materials, both pure and mixed (Greenblue 2017). Although
the current technique is expensive, the goal is to achieve pricing competitiveness with virgin
materials. Furthermore, the implementation of chemical recycling factories in Europe has the
potential to create job possibilities, providing a social advantage (personal communication
2018).

H&M and the Hong Kong Research Institute of Textiles and Apparel (HKRITA) have also
made significant contributions to textile-to-textile recycling. This method employs chemical
and hydrothermal treatment under high pressure to recycle cotton and polyester blends into
fresh fabric and yarns. A pre-industrialized facility in Hong Kong, established in September
2018 by the H&M Foundation, has successfully proven this process. Nevertheless, cotton that
has been transformed into cellulose powders is not recycled into new clothing but rather used
for practical items like super-absorbent materials. The production of these materials requires
a significant amount of energy due to the development of heat and pressure.

Evrnu, a firm located in the United States, has created an innovative recycling technique to
reclaim cotton materials. This process is now in the prototype stage. Evrnu, in partnership
with Levi Strauss & Co., successfully created the initial pair of jeans using recycled cotton
waste from consumers (Leonas 2017). This process involves the elimination of dyes and
impurities, followed by the pulping and breakdown of cotton into individual fiber molecules.
As a result, a filament is produced that is finer than silk and stronger than cotton. This
process also significantly reduces water usage, with a 98% decrease compared to the
cultivation of new cotton, mainly because cotton farming is eliminated (Moorhouse &
Moorhouse, 2017).

6.3 Sorting technologies:

Typically, recycling technology necessitates input materials with a reasonably high level of
purity. Consequently, the significance of sorting technology will increase, necessitating its
simultaneous development.

The Fibersort system, developed by Circle Economy in partnership with collectors, sorters,
and recycling professionals, is a pioneering initiative in the field of textile recycling (Ellen
MacArthur Foundation, 2017a). This cutting-edge technology utilizes near-infrared
spectroscopy (NIRS) to automate the sorting of mixed post-consumer textiles according to
their color and fiber type. It enables the identification of clothes manufactured from various
materials such as cotton, wool, viscose, polyester, acrylic, and nylon (Ellen MacArthur
Foundation, 2017a). The fibers that have been sorted demonstrate minimal contamination and
may be used as single-fiber inputs in mechanical and chemical recycling procedures by
textile recyclers who specialize in high-value textile-to-textile recycling (Greenblue, 2017).

42
SIPTex is an acronym that stands for...

SIPTex, a state-of-the-art sorting technology, has been developed by Vinnova in partnership

with Boer Group and other collaborators. SIPTex, like Fibersort, employs near-infrared
spectroscopy (NIRS) and visible spectroscopy technologies to identify garments (Norden,
2015). Garment separation in SIPTex is accomplished using compressed air. However, unlike
Fibersort, SIPTex's main objective is to sort clothing based on their primary fiber type and
does not assist in separating fibers (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017a).

Textiles4Textiles is a project or initiative related to textiles.

Textiles4Textiles (T4T) is a sorting system that uses near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) to

separate clothing articles (Norden, 2015). The technology, created by Wieland Textiles and
the Laserzentrum Hannover (LSH) in collaboration with other partners, allows for the sorting
of old textile material depending on its fiber composition and color. This permits the potential
separation of up to 300 different fractions (Norden, 2015). However, as present, it is only
implemented for less than 10 fractions.

By sorting items based on their color, the process of bleaching or re-dyeing before recycling
may be avoided, which in turn minimizes the need for chemicals and provides environmental
advantages. Moreover, these cutting-edge sorting technologies have the capacity to produce
cost savings by substituting manual sorting procedures, however they usually need substantial
initial expenditures and substantial quantities of textiles to be economically viable (Norden,
2015). The widespread use of these technologies will need the existence of extensive
facilities, investors, and a strong demand for unused second-hand clothing. Although the
elimination of manual sorting may result in job consequences, the introduction of these
facilities also has the potential to generate highly skilled employment opportunities.

43
 Chapter 7. Theoretical framework of textile upcycling-
7.1 Upcycling
Upcycling is the act of converting discarded or unwanted goods into new materials or
products that are of similar or superior quality, or have more environmental worth.
Essentially, the process involves transforming trash into a new product while preserving or
improving its quality. The primary objective of upcycling is to reduce the amount of
potentially useful materials that are wasted by reusing those that already exist (Smusiak,
2010). Proponents of upcycling contend that although impoverished countries have
traditionally engaged in this activity by repurposing packaging and old clothes, the idea is
now gaining traction in industrialized nations too, fueled by a growing demand for
environmentally friendly items. Successful upcycled products are those that are financially
feasible for producers while being affordably priced for customers (Goldsmith, 2009).7.1.1
Why Upcycling?
Upcycling is seen as a necessary alternative to continually producing new items to meet
growing demand, as discussed earlier. Continuing with new production only perpetuates the
cycle of overconsumption and its associated problems. This issue is particularly pronounced
in the textile industry. Upcycling is gaining popularity among those concerned about climate
change because it offers a greener alternative to recycling. While recycling is beneficial, it
requires energy and resources to collect, sort, and process waste, often resulting in a reduction
in material quality. Upcycling, on the other hand, represents a more environmentally friendly
approach by utilizing existing materials, thereby reducing the need for new raw materials and
potentially lowering energy usage, air and water pollution, and CO2 emissions. For vendors
and consumers who prioritize environmental concerns, upcycled products offer a way for
businesses to operate sustainably without changing their fundamental purpose (Upcycling,
2011). Zero waste principles advocate for minimal landfill contributions, with upcycling
considered an essential step towards achieving this goal (Zero Waste International Alliance,
2010).
7.2 Cradle to Cradle
The idea of "cradle to grave," as elucidated by architects and chemists William McDonough
and Michael Braungart (2002), underscores the dominant pattern wherein diverse objects
finally culminate as refuse in landfills. This encompasses many commodities such as apparel,
furnishings, electrical devices, and leftover food. While certain materials have the ability to
degrade or be recycled, others are suitable for upcycling. Contemporary items frequently
have planned obsolescence, intentionally engineered to have a short lifespan in order to
motivate buyers to buy new ones. This technique is especially prevalent in the fashion
industry. Nevertheless, it is important to note that abandoned products only constitute a small
portion of the overall raw materials utilized in the production and distribution processes.
Braungart and McDonough propose an alternative to the current paradigm by promoting
upcycling and adopting a cradle-to-cradle strategy. This method involves continuously
regenerating goods from the same materials (Mahoney, 2005).
The majority of recycling endeavors lead to downcycling, which involves a gradual decline in
the quality of materials. Textile recycling generally entails the process of reducing the quality
44
of textiles for charity or alternative applications, resulting in a progressive decrease in
material quality. Although there may be good intentions behind it, the innovative utilization
of recycled items might unintentionally deceive customers. Considering that the majority of
items are not initially developed with recycling in mind, the environmental advantages of
recycling are still uncertain. The key priority is to ensure that items are designed to be
recyclable right from the beginning in order to significantly decrease the substantial amount
of waste. Upcycling, in contrast to downcycling, is a feasible long-term approach, given the
presence of ample waste materials (Braungart & McDonough, 2002, pp. 56-59).
The relentless quest for novel products, which is a defining feature of the modern fashion
business, drives excessive consumption. Consumer behavior is driven by the appeal of
newness, which leads to a continuous cycle of acquiring and discarding products.
Nevertheless, the consumption model itself contains a fundamental want for distinctiveness
and limited access, a notion that upcycling aims to fulfill. Upcycling promotes the
preservation of shared history and the appreciation of materials by offering goods that have a
feeling of historical and cultural relevance. It opposes the current mindset of disposability and
encourages social pleasure of these materials (Braungart & McDonough, 2002, pp. 102-103).

7.3 The textile industry

The textile industry undergoes fluctuations, which are impacted by several local and
worldwide elements in today's linked fashion market. The textile industries globally are
facing challenges due to a mix of rising demand and decreasing supply. Every phase of textile
production presents environmental hazards, which contribute to pollution. The global
transportation of textile products intensifies environmental problems. Although textiles are
essential, over consumption of them results in environmental deterioration and scarcity of
resources (Singleton, 1997; Claudio, 2007).

7.4 The dynamics of fashion in textiles

According to Yurchisin & Johnson (2010, p. 1-13), fashion is a type of social behavior that is
embraced by organizations, societies, or communities. The majority's acceptance of it comes
before its final rejection, signaling the end of a fashion fad and the beginning of trash, while
there is possibility for upcycling. Fashion represents the process of imitating and adopting
new trends or behaviors that are introduced and seen throughout society. The continuous
process of innovation and subsequent rejection has progressively sped up over time. Modern
consumers demonstrate heightened fashion consciousness and expectations, as seen by their
preference for short lead-times, quick reaction, and fast fashion (Hayes & Jones, 2006). The
increasing popularity of upcycling in textile materials is praised for effectively tackling
societal issues within the fashion industry. Although the global fashion market has had a
substantial growth, eco-fashion only holds a small portion of it. Nin Castle, the founder of
Goodone, a fashion company specializing in upcycling, sees upcycling as a viable and
environmentally friendly answer to the fashion industry's environmental challenges
(Marsden, 2010).

45
7.5 The vendors’ motivation
In order for the practice of upcycling textile materials to thrive, it is essential to have vendors
who are eager to sell the repurposed waste. A Synovate study found that 88 percent of
participants believe that corporations have a duty to reduce the impact of climate change.
This extensive study surveyed the opinions of more than 13,000 individuals from 18 different
nations regarding climate change (Synovate, 2010). According to Worn Again (n.d.),
upcycling companies use textile waste as a valuable resource to create new items, promote
environmentally friendly employment, and foster sustainable economic development.
Nevertheless, merchants also get several advantages from selling repurposed textile items.
They help decrease textile waste while also generating additional sources of income.
Furthermore, the increasing popularity of upcycling as a commercial endeavor results in the
generation of employment opportunities. Vendors contribute to the reduction of CO2
emissions by employing recycled materials instead of new ones. Furthermore, the profit-
oriented aspect of upcycling allows for monetary benefits through the sale of items to clients.
Cost savings and promotional benefits are other advantages that may be obtained by selling
repurposed items. Vendors also promote sustainable innovation and provide education to both
their personnel and consumers. These programs allow businesses to improve the value of
their brand by emphasizing their unique qualities and commitment to sustainability. The
essence of upcycling is its inherent simplicity.

7.6 Challenges facing upcycled textile products-

7.6.1 Trademark infringement-

Although garbage itself does not have ownership, brand names do. Even the most
ecologically aware brand owners have the right to be worried about the unapproved
utilization of their trademarks on repurposed items. Well-known retail companies, which are
primarily identified by their brand names, could be reluctant to be linked with upcycled items
that do not fit into their usual product categories. For instance, a renowned tennis racquet
manufacturer may prefer not to have their distinctive symbol visible on outdoor furniture
crafted from their racquets. Consumers establish a connection between the brand name and
particular attributes or characteristics when they buy a branded product. Hence, purchasing
upcycled items that still display a brand name might be deceptive, as buyers can mistakenly
assume that these products were manufactured with the brand owner's authorization and
adhere to their quality criteria. The state of confusion or deceit presents a potential danger of
violating trademark rights. Companies faced with excessively invasive upcycled items have
the option to pursue legal recourse or engage in negotiations with the upcycler to exert
control over the utilization of their brand and guarantee that any upcycled products adhere to
their brand image. Alternatively, individuals have the option to disregard it (Anderson, 2009).

46
7.6.2 Labeling
Modern consumers are becoming more knowledgeable and demanding when it comes to the
things they buy. They want clear and detailed information on the ingredients, manufacturing
processes, and sources of the items they purchase. Nevertheless, while constructing upcycled
items, it might be difficult to monitor the composition of each individual part. The absence of
knowledge about the composition of recycled textile items may discourage potential clients,
especially those with allergies or specific preferences. Hence, the lack of explicit labeling on
recycled textile items might lead to missed chances for sales (Duhbe, 2010). Textile product
labels should contain extensive details, including the precise composition of the material and
a unique identification number assigned to the producer (European Consumer Centre in
Spain, n.d.).
7.7 The consumers-

7.7.1 Consumer attitudes

The shift towards environmentally aware living goes beyond political rhetoric and
environmental campaigning, influencing popular culture, fashion, and business. As the focus
on economic growth intensifies globally, there is an increasing need for an economy that
prioritizes environmental sustainability. Within the realm of business, upcycling signifies the
merging of environmental awareness with popular culture and fashion, resulting in a
heightened consumer desire to acquire and utilize recycled materials. Persuasive voices of
influence play a pivotal part in convincing customers that utilizing recycled materials is
fashionable. A poll conducted by the Boston Consulting Group indicates that 33% of
participants expressed their willingness to pay an additional cost for eco-friendly items,
provided they were convinced of the tangible advantages associated with them. Hence, it is
crucial to build environmental authenticity in order to earn the confidence of consumers
(Cosper, 2011).
Within the realm of fashion customers, particularly among the younger population, the
prioritization of trendiness frequently supersedes other factors. This group plays a big role in
excessive consumption, which is fueled by strong influence from fashion media and
competition among fast-fashion merchants based on low prices. While there is ongoing
discussion regarding the moral implications of low fashion costs, there is a lack of
widespread understanding regarding the environmental consequences of textile disposal.
Research on the disposal practices of young fashion consumers reveals a lack of
understanding regarding the need of clothes recycling and reuse, which can be attributed to
inadequate media coverage. Nevertheless, individuals demonstrate a readiness to alter their
consumption and disposal habits if they possessed greater knowledge regarding the social and
environmental repercussions (Morgan & Birtwistle, 2009).
In order to encourage the usage of upcycled items, it is necessary to change consumer
attitudes from a paradigm that favors disposability to one that prioritizes continuous reuse.
According to Justin Gignac, the creator of the NYC Garbage project, the increase in
upcycling may be attributed to shifting consumer attitudes. As consumers grow more
conscious of waste and see the cleverness of recycling existing materials, they are more
inclined to engage in upcycling (Wang, 2011). The increased coverage of environmental
disputes and natural disasters in the media is exerting a significant influence on fashion and
interior designers, motivating them to adopt novel techniques to upcycling. The inclusion of
upcycling in designer collections has contributed to an increase in customer demand for
repurposed items (Swanberg, 2011).

47
7.7.2 Environmental awareness

Human activities exert a tremendous influence on the environment, presenting a substantial

threat to both human existence and the world as a whole. The preservation and enhancement
of the environment are increasingly acknowledged as crucial for the long-term viability of
humanity and the planet (Richards, 2001). According to Zsóka (2006), environmental
awareness consists of five essential elements:

- Knowledge pertaining to the environment - Values related to the environment

- Attitudes towards the environment - Volition to take action - Concrete implementation of
actions

Environmental knowledge is crucial in forming individuals' ideas, attitudes, values, and

behavior. It has a significant impact on their environmental values and attitudes, which
ultimately influence their decision-making process. Environmental values may be categorized
into three separate types: values pertaining to others, values pertaining to the environment,
and values pertaining to oneself. Environmental attitudes diverge from values by placing
greater emphasis on the affective component in respect to a specific issue or circumstance.
The inclination to engage in environmentally sensitive actions can be regarded as a result of
one's beliefs and attitudes, acting as a preliminary factor to real activity. The acts of persons
are ultimately a reflection of their knowledge, attitudes, and values. The many aspects of
environmental awareness are closely linked, since good attitudes encourage a willingness to
take action, resulting in tangible behaviors (Zsóka, 2006).

48
 Chapter 8. Upcycling in fashion design –

Upcycling, in its current form, refers to the process of using waste materials that were once
created inside the cradle-to-grave framework (Dunn 2008, p. 5). It functions as a solution for
waste management that is implemented at the conclusion of the process, with the goal of
increasing value and optimizing the use of resources. Farrer (cf. 2011, p. 35) defines
upcycling as the act of transforming broken, damaged, or no longer needed goods into new
and valuable items using a specific process known as upcycling. Primarily, it functions as a
waste management tool for designers, allowing them to reassess the genuine worth and value
of waste materials by creating and producing new goods. The act of reusing and recycling
existing materials allows designers to redirect textile matter away from being burned or
thrown into a landfill (cf. ibid.). Aus (cf. 2011, p. 41) provides a similar definition of the
upcycling technique as the process of reintegrating trash into the consumption cycle by
strategically positioning it at a higher level in the chain than its prior position.

The meanings of upcycling often seen in literature exhibit similarities. Upcycling is widely
accepted as a process that seeks to incorporate textile waste back into manufacturing. This
gives discarded, ripped, and discolored materials more worth and a fresh opportunity for use,
while also diverting trash away from landfills (cf. Aus 2011, p. 41; Fletcher 2008, p. 103).
Aus (cf. 2011, p. 41ff.) differentiates upcycling from waste management approaches like
"Reduce, Reuse, Recycle," since upcycling aims to increase the value of a product. Upcycling
is differentiated from conventional recycling methods by its focus on enhancing value.
Designers who are knowledgeable about the subject are using techniques such as upcycling to
extend the lifespan and worth of items and materials, instead of just recycling them (Farrer
2011, p. 35).

While upcycling is commonly linked to eco-effectiveness, it is not intrinsically eco-effective

since it involves using waste materials that were not initially generated in accordance with
eco-effective principles. Nevertheless, upcycling is in line with the cradle-to-cradle idea and
eco-effectiveness by emphasizing the addition of value and the designer's participation in this
process (cf. Dunn 2008, p. 5). Dunn accurately characterizes modern upcycling as a
progression towards a design strategy that encompasses the whole life cycle of a product, and
as a temporary solution until more sustainable and environmentally-friendly materials are
created.

49
Upcycling functions as a waste management tool, especially as a type of recycling. Within
the realm of textile recycling, upcycling is generally considered to be a step that occurs after
the second-hand usage of textiles and before the mechanical, physical, and chemical methods
of recycling, according to the prioritized order of the waste hierarchy. Fletcher (cf. 2008, p.
101) classifies upcycling as a process of "restoring and refurbishing," whereas Hawley (cf.
2011, p. 150) defines it as "reconceptualizing." Nevertheless, the emphasis on design-
centricity and the creation of value distinguishes upcycling from conventional approaches to
managing textile waste. De Castro (cf. Redress 2013, p. 6) argues that upcycling should be
differentiated from recycling or downcycling, as the latter involves the transformation of
textiles into goods of lesser quality. Upcycling refers to the process of transforming materials
into items of superior quality, as opposed to recycling which includes the conversion of
resources into new products.

Upcycling occurs at several levels, such as the product, component, or material level.
Methods such as patchworking, frequently employed in upcycling, entail the act of cutting
and merging various fabrics or fabric fragments to produce novel objects. Patchworking is a
fundamental method used in upcycling that combines and reconfigures different elements.
The approach enables the exploitation of production waste, namely scrap fabric, making it the
only upcycling technique suitable for such situations.

Upcycling surpasses the principles of the waste hierarchy and establishes itself as a unique
method of waste management, focused on enhancing value through recycling. Figure 8
depicts the correlation between upcycling and recycling, showcasing how upcycling involves
many methods or strategies that designers may use to increase the worth of discarded items.

Figure 5 Textile recycling and upcycling Source: Aus 2011, p. 42

Another approach to classifying upcycling choices, in addition to particular methodologies, is

by the type of textile waste used, namely production, pre-consumer, or post-consumer waste.
Reconstruction refers to the act of creating new clothing items from previously worn
garments or premade products (Redress, 2013, p. 9). Terms such as Redesign, Refashion, and
Restyling are also used in the context of upcycling, especially when it comes to post-
consumer textile waste. Nevertheless, there is currently no precise terminology that describes
the act of utilizing manufacturing waste as a raw material in textile manufacture.
50
Textile recycling encompasses the practice of upcycling, which serves as a different method
for managing trash and a means for sustainable fashion creation. Textile recycling involves a
range of methods that seek to redirect various sorts of textile waste away from being
discarded and instead reintroduce them into the apparel or textile industry as top-notch goods.
Upcycling is a process that uses a design-focused and value-oriented approach to transform
waste textiles into higher-quality products. This allows these textiles to go from the lowest to
the highest level of the manufacturing cycle, as stated by Aus in 2011 (p. 42). This highlights
the need to reassess the designer's function in fashion design, as designers take on a central
role in the upcycling process (cf. ibid.).

Upcycling, which aims to avoid the process of downcycling by focusing on design, is in line
with the sustainability principle of eco-effectiveness and the cradle-to-cradle idea. Upcycling
incorporates the principles of eco-efficiency by focusing on improving resource efficiency,
reducing waste output, and decreasing the manufacture of new textiles. Textile upcycling is a
concept within the industry that focuses on minimizing waste and eliminating the requirement
for new raw materials in textile manufacturing (Fraser, 2009, p. 16). In addition, the promise
of upcycling is found in its artisanal, non-industrial method, which, when compared to other
waste recovery techniques such as Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, brings about substantial change
while using minimum energy (cf. Aus 2011, p. 42).

Although upcycling prioritizes sustainability, it nevertheless embodies the fundamental

nature of fashion. Dunn (cf. 2008, p. 5) defines the notion as a "ideologically 'bright, green'
approach that recognizes the human need for renewal and addresses it in a way that
encourages contemplation of consumption habits without sacrificing style or individuality."
In addition, upcycling is commonly linked to the practice of sourcing and producing locally.
It is seen as a way to tackle environmental and social problems caused by the globalization of
the fashion textile industry and its dependence on transportation (cf. Aus 2011, p. 43).

8.1 Forms of textile upcycling-

In the previous section, upcycling was defined as a predominantly value-oriented method to

recycling textiles and managing trash. Upcycling, a design-centric approach to sustainable
fashion creation, takes on several forms. Upcycling, a concept that originated in the fashion
industry in the mid-2000s, has only been categorized into a few basic forms so far (cf. ibid.,
p. 43). Upcycling can be categorized based on the specific waste material that is used (Aus
2011, p. 48; Redress 2013a, p. 2). Another component of categorization relates to whether the
designs developed are unique or replicable (cf. Redress 2013a, p. 2f.). Aus (cf. 2011, p. 121)
categorizes upcycling into three distinct types, which are determined by the level of
manufacturing and professionalism involved:

• Individuals who engage in sewing at home as part of a Do-It-Yourself (DIY) idea.

• Artisans working autonomously in studios and creating unique and exclusive items.
• Producers, whether small-scale or mass, who integrate upcycling into their serial design.

Consumers primarily use their own worn clothing, specifically post-consumer textile waste,
when they participate in DIY upcycling. This diminishes their requirement for new
acquisitions, limits the production of trash, and enables textile manufacturing with minimal
utilization of resources (cf. ibid., p. 125). In do-it-yourself situations, there is no need for

51
transportation because customers also act as producers, thereby completing the cycle.
However, in order to upcycle their textile waste, customers must have proficient sewing
abilities and be prepared to dedicate time and resources. Within the field of fashion design,
independent designers and small brands utilize upcycling techniques to create distinctive
goods. Post-consumer textile waste, which is highly valued for its distinct qualities and aged
appearance, is frequently used as the primary material for creating distinctive and singular
items (cf. Dunn 2008, p. 40; Fletcher 2008, p. 103; Hawley 2011, p. 150). At this level,
designers frequently integrate a combination of different sorts of textile waste in their designs
(cf. Aus 2011, p. 121). Although each item is unique, the process of producing one-offs
requires a lot of effort and time, which leads to higher costs (cf. Aus 2011, p. 122; Hawley
2011, p. 150).

In order to decrease manufacturing expenses by taking advantage of economies of scale and

increase the environmental consequences, upcycling enterprises may choose to engage in
serial production. This includes the process of creating several unique items through small-
scale manufacture of standardized design models (as mentioned in Dunn 2008, p. 6), as well
as the creation of greater quantities or mass production of standardized designs. According to
Aus (2011, p. 50), using manufacturing waste is most practical for serial and mass production
since there are huge volumes available, regular material flows, and good material quality. As
a result, she finds two upcycling tactics at the mass manufacturing stage: firms either use
their own production waste or get trash from other textile-producing entities (cf. ibid., p.
123). Considering that the latter involves expenses associated with transporting, organizing,
categorizing, and cleaning, the former approach is considered to be more favorable (cf. ibid.,
p. 124).

Aus correlates each kind of upcycling with particular categories of textile waste, implying
that some types of waste are more suitable for different forms and magnitudes of upcycling.
The researcher's findings suggest that when it comes to serial and mass manufacturing,
production waste is the most suitable material due to the consistently high volumes generated
(cf. Aus 2011, p. 50). Nevertheless, Aus's conclusions are based on studies done only in
Estonia, where the availability of pre-consumer and post-consumer textile waste is restricted.
Regarding pre-consumer waste, namely sales leftovers, the Estonian market and garment
quantities are comparatively limited (cf. Aus 2011, p. 49). Estonia's textile recycling
infrastructure is not strong enough to supply significant volumes of trash to upcycling
enterprises (cf. ibid., p. 48). Upon closer analysis of further practical instances, it becomes
evident that the majority of enterprises who implement upcycling in garment and textile
production operate at a modest scale, largely focusing on creating unique and individual
pieces. Contrarily, fashion enterprises working on a small to medium size have mostly
embraced serial production (cf. ibid., p. 121, 123). A significant number of these businesses
are located in Europe, namely in the United Kingdom.

British upcycling firm From Somewhere solely uses pre-consumer leftover materials from the
luxury fashion sector (From Somewhere 2013). In 2010, From Somewhere worked along
with Tesco to repurpose their own leftover materials, and in 2011, they joined forces with
Speedo to repurpose unsold swimming suits and other garbage that was generated before the
products were sold (cf. de Castro (2010) referenced in Aus (cf. 2011, p. 44), Upcycling
Fashion (2011)). Goodone, a British business that specializes in upcycling, creates collections
that are sold at different retailers throughout the world (see to Goodone 2013). The firm
utilizes post-consumer textiles obtained from recycling organizations along with organic
virgin materials to establish uniform patterns and facilitate the ability to reproduce them (cf.

52
Redress 2013, p. 2). In order to reduce production expenses, Goodone has set up a
manufacturing facility in Bulgaria to provide cost-effective, large-scale clothing items (cf.
Goodone 2013). Globe Hope, a Finnish business specializing in upcycling, creates a diverse
array of products such as clothing, bags, shoes, and accessories. These items are made
utilizing a range of materials, with a significant portion sourced from pre-consumer (dead
stock) and post-consumer trash obtained from institutional customers. Globe Hope transforms
waste military materials, clothing, uniforms, and old marketing banners composed of
tarpaulin into new products. In addition, the brand makes use of post-consumer waste
obtained from textile recycling organizations, which comes from individual houses (cf. Globe
Hope 2013). Worn Again, a British brand, repurposes workwear and uniforms in partnership
with industries that generate substantial amounts of textile waste. They transform this trash
into new items for internal consumption inside the firm (cf. Worn Again 2013). Reet Aus, the
founder of Aus Design Ltd., is the only designer that upcycles textile waste on a large scale,
using just manufacturing waste. The Spring/Summer collection of 2013 was manufactured by
Beximco Ltd, a vertically integrated fabric and garment factory in Bangladesh. The collection
made use of their fabric waste directly at the manufacturing site, as mentioned in the Trash to
Trend 2013 report.

The aforementioned examples demonstrate that several upcycling enterprises engaged in

mass manufacturing do not just utilize production waste as their raw materials. However, it
appears that the majority of them depend on post-consumer trash obtained from diverse
sources. The desire for both pre-consumer and post-consumer wastes may stem from the fact
that they provide a broader array of upcycling methods for finished items, whereas
manufacturing waste is usually only suitable for the patchwork approach. The findings of
Dunn (2008) and Fraser (2009) are supported by this comparison, indicating that post-
consumer textile waste has the potential to be used in industrial production models through
upcycling processes.

8.2 Exploring the industrial manufacturing process of upcycling post-consumer textile waste
(PCTW) and contrasting it with virgin production-

Figure 9 depicts the standardized upcycling process model introduced by Fraser (2009). This
graphic illustrates the consumer process of acquiring and utilizing men's pants. Fraser's
method for standardizing the upcycling process of post-consumer textile waste (PCTW)
involves choosing a widely accessible form of clothing that is somewhat consistent in terms
of size, shape, and quality (Fraser 2009, p. 31). The three criteria mentioned, namely the
quality of the raw material, are considered to be important factors in upcycling. Various
sources, such as Aus (2011, p. 50), Fraser (2009, p. 38, 55), and Redress (2013, p. 3), agree
on the significance of the raw material's quality for its usefulness in upcycling. As will be
shown later on, the presence and uniformity of raw materials make it easier to achieve
economic benefits in industrial production, such as streamlining and increased efficiency due
to larger production volumes.

Fraser's approach categorizes the manufacturing process into five main stages (see to Fraser
2009, p. 44-50).

1. Physical sourcing: This process involves finding and choosing raw materials, including
evaluating them based on their usefulness and quality.
2. Preprocessing: Involves documenting garment specifics and doing expert washing.

53
3. Disassembly: This step entails carefully removing stitches and applying pressure to flatten
the fabric.
4. Cutting: This step involves placing the pattern correctly, marking it, and then cutting the
fabric accordingly.
5. Reassembly involves grouping together trimmings, stitching the garment, and applying
pressure.

Figure 6 Standardised upcycling process model Source: Fraser 2009, p. 50

Fraser aligns the upcycling process model with the industrial textile production process,
which follows the principle of Economies of Scale. This principle allows for a gradual
decrease in costs per unit (both fixed and variable costs) as production volume increases. (cf.
ibid., p. 36).
This methodology enables her to perform a comparative examination of both processes,
uncovering inconsistencies in certain elements, as indicated by numbers 1 to 4 in figure 6 (cf.
Fraser 2009, p. 49):

1. In traditional garment production, fabric rolls are used, but the upcycling method utilizes
specific raw materials such as trousers.

The preparation of this raw material requires further processing stages, such as recording,
cleaning, unpicking, and pressing.

In virgin textile production, pattern placement is uniform since standardized fabric rolls are
used. However, in upcycling, pattern arrangement becomes difficult due to variances in the
dimensions of raw materials, such as length and width.

4. In conventional textile production, it is possible to cut numerous layers of fabric at the

same time since the materials used are standardized. However, while upcycling, each fabric
layer needs to be cut individually, which requires specialized knowledge (cf. ibid., p. 37, 48).

54
The main cause of these differences is the lack of standardization in waste material, which
makes upcycling a labor-intensive and somewhat more costly operation compared to
producing new textiles. The unique characteristics of raw materials in upcycling require
several extra procedures, including checking, grading, sorting, recording, cleaning,
unpicking, and pressing. Unlike virgin textile production, upcycling cannot be as easily
streamlined due to non-standardized pattern placement, single-layer cutting, and the
requirement for specialized knowledge. Nevertheless, despite these differences, the
manufacturing process of upcycling closely resembles that of producing new textiles (Fraser
2009, p. 49).

9. Case Study: Freitag - Pioneering Sustainable Fashion Through

Upcycling
Freitag, a globally recognized upcycling and circular economy firm founded in 1993 in
Switzerland, specialized in transforming discarded tarpaulin into durable bags and
accessories that are resistant to water (Freitag, 2022). Freitag has enjoyed widespread
commercial success worldwide, with over 300 retail shops in Europe, North America, Asia,
and Australia, as well as more than 470 trading partners (Trutmann et al., 2014). Their
groundbreaking items have attracted significant attention and are widely shown at renowned
design institutions including the Design Museum in Switzerland and the MoMA in New York
(Fisk, 2021).

The establishment of Freitag originated from the creators' personal need for practical, long-
lasting bags to transport their design sketches while riding to work in Zurich's inclement
weather (Budgen, 2017; Labbrand, 2020). Freitag goods are meticulously crafted to prioritize
environmental sustainability and long-lasting quality. They are specifically tailored to be
distinctive, one-of-a-kind, and well-suited for bicycling activities (Fisk, 2021). The brand's
identity is based on engaging narratives, a strong dedication to environmental responsibility,
and the creation of unique products (FashionUnited, 2018; Trutmann et al., 2014; Spötter,
2021). Every year, Freitag transforms almost 300 tonnes of truck tarpaulin into 300,000
items, demonstrating their commitment to reducing waste and promoting circular economy
concepts(Budgen,2017).

Freitag's journey serves as a notable example of a highly successful narrative in the field of
upcycling. The brand was founded in 1993 in Zurich and has effectively expanded its
operations to serve large consumer markets. Their product selection, made from abandoned
truck tarps, B-stock airbags, recycled PET, and biodegradable textiles, appeals to consumers
who are looking for high-quality, sustainable options. Freitag's bags are particularly
noteworthy because to their unique and original nature. They are characterized by random
designs that emphasize the intrinsic individuality of recycled items. Freitag items continue to
be in strong demand, despite their higher price points, which demonstrates customers' value
for deliberate and meaningful consuming habits. Clear communication channels enhance the
brand's dedication to sustainability and provide a valid reason for the higher price of their
products (Sung et al., 2022).

Freitag's product-service system is characterized by innovation and a focus on client needs. It

delivers functional items that are resistant to trends and can be customized according to
individual preferences. Customers have the ability to customize their bags based on their
55
tastes, which strengthens their emotional bond with the brand. The brand's end-of-life tactics,
such as take-back programs and SWAP services, demonstrate their dedication to circularity
and ensuring customer happiness (Sung et al., 2022). Freitag's narrative-driven strategy not
only imparts knowledge to consumers but also cultivates more profound involvement through
endeavors such as DIY micro-factories. These micro-factories allow customers to actively
participate in the bag-making process, enabling them to acquire new skills and develop
stronger connections with the brand (Haug, 2019). This kind of collaborative design improves
the emotional durability of Freitag goods, in line with modern design principles (Chapman,
2009).

9.1 Philosophy and Storytelling-

Freitag adheres to a philosophy expressed by the phrase "We think and act in cycles," as
detailed in their manifesto, which governs their approach to cooperation, product creation,
manufacturing, and distribution (Freitag, 2022). They are dedicated to fostering mindful
consumerism, with a focus on closed-loop systems and durable belongings (Freitag, 2022).
Freitag aims to achieve 99 percent circularity, but acknowledges the difficulties in achieving
complete circularity in the present generation (Spötter, 2021). The brand's ethos is best
represented by their motto, RIP - Recycle Individual Products, as stated by Pascal Dulex, the
creative director (Carlson, 2020). Freitag's identity is primarily defined by its enduring ideals
of sustainability, functionality, and distinctiveness (El Sayed, 2022). These characteristics
strongly resonate with both workers and consumers. Freitag's customers like both the product
itself and the story behind it, showing a desire to support the use of recycled materials and
purchase distinctive, long-lasting bags that have a narrative, even without the appeal of
discounts (Fisk, 2021).

9.2 Sustainable and Transparent Production Processes-

Freitag (2022) outlines five primary stages in the production process: (i) truck spotting; (ii)
cutting the tarps; (iii) cleaning; (iv) bag design; and (v) finishing. The company has an online
platform where all 160 team members may share and showcase impressive trucks they come
across (Budgen, 2017). Upon discovery, if the individuals are found to be aged between five
and eight years old, Freitag procures used tarps from various suppliers around Europe
(Trutmann et al., 2014; Labbrand, 2020). Once the tarps that have been bought are removed
and a sample is inspected to verify their safety, the tarps are disassembled in order to be
cleaned (Freitag, 2022). The rainwater that has been filtered is utilized for cleaning the tarps,
which are thereafter stored in tanks located underneath the production plant. The tarps have
been dried and the bag design has been finalized following the washing process. The
authentic design process necessitates extensive manual labor as each form is meticulously
chosen and cut by Freitag's dedicated "F-crew," a team of in-house professionals known for
their meticulous attention to detail (Budgen, 2017; Labbrand, 2020).
Once the design and materials are prepared for sewing, they are shipped to our sewing
partners in Bulgaria, Poland, Portugal, Switzerland, the Czech Republic, and Tunisia. After
the items have been sewed, they are brought back to the headquarters for quality control and
to take distinctive photographs for sales purposes. Electricity generation is powered by solar
56
energy. Accessories are produced from smaller fragmented pieces and remaining tarp
components (Freitag, 2022; Labbrand, 2020).
Freitag showcases this production process in a clear and open manner, using it as a marketing
tool to justify the high cost and limited quantity of things produced as a result of the
numerous manual procedures involved (Budgen, 2017; Spötter, 2021).

Figure 7 Materialkreislauf | FREITAG source- https://www.freitag.ch/de/material-cycle

9.3 Product and Service Offerings:

Freitag's products are very functional, including numerous features like as adjustable
shoulder straps, concealed zipper pockets, and quick-release buckles. They are durable,
unique, and built to last, without following any particular trends (El Sayed, 2022; Trutmann
et al., 2014). Their inventory consists of a diverse range of bags, such as rucksacks, flag-
bearer packs, and tablet packs, along with accessories like wallets, keyholders, and pockets.
They also provide contemporary clothing options from brands like Freitag and 2022. Their
backpacks, in particular, have become a design emblem (Budgen, 2017). Freitag also
provides a range of services including customization, maintenance, product exchange (i.e.
S.W.A.P - Shopping Without Any Payment), cargo bicycle leasing, and factory visits
(Freitag, 2022; Labbrand, 2020). Recently, they have also established a "Sweat-Yourself-
Shop" in Zurich, which is a small-scale factory where customers can participate in the
creation of their own bag. They have the opportunity to choose the tarp materials and see the
cutting and sewing process (Block, 2020).

9.4 Continuous Innovation and Partnerships-

Freitag consistently releases novel and inventive products. To enhance the flexibility and
reduce the weight of the bag's more flexible parts, they partnered with the Swedish fashion
tech company We aRe SpinDy to create a new collection of bags. These bags are made from a
57
combination of truck tarp and recycled plastic bottles (PET) material (Calore, 2019; Freitag,
2022). In addition, they engaged in collaborations with other corporate partners to develop a
truck tarp that is fully recyclable (Preuss, 2021). In addition, Freitag established a clothing
brand known as F-ABRIC, which consists exclusively of biodegradable materials derived
from seven hemp, flax, and modal species farmed in Europe. The product is manufactured
using a cradle-to-cradle approach and does not include any harmful substances, specifically
avoiding the use of water-intensive cotton. This information is supported by Budgen (2017),
Freitag (2022), and Spötter (2021).

9.5 Conclusion-

Freitag's journey from a small Swiss workshop to a global upcycling powerhouse epitomizes
the potential of sustainable fashion. By prioritizing sustainability, transparency, and
innovation, Freitag has not only revolutionized waste perception but has also set a precedent
for ethical and responsible fashion practices. As Freitag continues to inspire change within
the industry, it reaffirms its commitment to building a more sustainable and circular future for
fashion.

58
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