CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS

COMMON STATISTICAL TERMS

STATISTICS POPULATION VS SAMPLE

Science of collecting, simplifying and describing A set of all possible observations of Subset or subgroup selected from
data as well as drawing conclusion based on the some specific characteristics. the population.
analysis of data.
CENSUS VS SAMPLE SURVEY
Study conducted by measuring Study conducted by measuring
DESCRIPTIVE INFERENTIAL every item in the population. subgroup or sample of population.
Study deals with Study concern with
collecting, summarizing making decision about
PARAMETER VS STATISTIC
and presenting data in the population based
Summary measures for entire Summary measures for a
convenient and on the properties
population. sample.
informative way. obtain from a sample.
ELEMENT Object on which measurement is taken.

Small experiment designed before the actual survey is

PILOT STUDY
done to test logistic and gather preliminary information.

VARIABLE
Characteristics of the population of interest.
SOURCE OF DATA

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE PRIMARY SECONDARY

Measured on numerical Measured on
First hand data/ raw data Published data collected by other
scale. non-numerical scale.
Advantage: parties.
• more accurate, reliable and Advantage:
Discrete Continuous up to date. • Less time, less cost, less effort
Numerical Numerical • Unavailable data from required
response arise response arise secondary data can be • Easily accessible
from counting from measuring gathered using primary data. Disadvantage:
process. process. Disadvantage: • Lack accuracy, may contains
• Costly and time consuming errors
Eg: Number of Eg: Height, Weight
• Require lots of man power. • May not able to fulfil the
children
objectives of the research.

SCALE OF MEASUREMENT

SCALE EXAMPLE LEVEL/RANK

Nominal • Categorical data Race Lowest
• Non-numerical measurement Colour

Ordinal • Values indicate in order or ranking Job satisfaction level

• Non-numerical measurement Education level

Interval • Differences between values are meaningful but cannot Temperature

be manipulated with multiplication and division. Time
• Not meaningful zero Shoe size

Ratio • Interval measurement with meaningful zero settings. Height

Highest
• Differences between 2 values are meaningful. Weight

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 DATA COLLECTION METHOD

METHOD ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE

DIRECT INTERVIEW
Interviewer ask questions from a
questionnaire and record the
responses.
• Higher response rate • Expensive
• Allows interviewer to clarify any • Interviewer must be trained
terms that are not understandable • Error may occur in recording
• Well trained interviewer can detect if response
respondents give false information

TELEPHONE INTERVIEW • Less time • Lower response rate

Interviewer ask question from a
prepared questionnaire through
telephone call.
MAIL/POSTAL QUESTIONNAIRE
Questionnaire sent to each
respondents with a stamped
addressed envelope attached or
sent through email.
DIRECT OBSERVATION
Used in work, studies and
organisations. Social scientist use
this method to learn habits and
customs of people or communities.
• Less expensive
• Investigator can monitor the
interviews to follow specified
procedure
• Wider coverage
• Less cost
• No interviewer influence
• Respondents have more time to think • Respondents may not return the
for the response
• Records what actually happened
• Data not affected by respondents
• Restricted to telephone user only
• Only few questions can be asked
• Have to find correct time to contact
the respondents.
• Lower response rate
• Respondents may not understand
the questions
questionnaire within the specified
time.
• Need highly skilled and unbiased
observer
• Not accurate if the respondents
aware that they were observed
• Present observation does not
represent past or future

SAMPLING
Process of selecting sample from population. SAMPLING
FRAME List of all population members.
Advantage:
• Reduce cost
SAMPLING The elements listed in the frame.
• Reduce time UNIT
• Provide information as accurate as complete census

SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

PROBABILITY SAMPLING NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Technique Advantage Disadvantage Technique Advantage Disadvantage
Simple Random • Free from bias. • Difficult to obtain Convenience • Less expensive • Selection bias
Sampling (SRS) • All elements have sampling frame. Sampling • Less time • Sample not
equal chance to be • Expensive • Most convenient representative
selected.
Quota Sampling • Sample can be • Selection bias
Systematic • Easy to implement • Difficult to obtain controlled for • No assurance of
Sampling compared to SRS sampling frame certain representative
• Problem arise if characteristics
there is regularity
within the list. Judgemental • Less expensive • Sampler must use
Sampling • Less time good judgement in
Stratified • More • Difficult if • Convenient choosing the
Sampling representative of sampling frame sample
populations not available.
• More precise • Expensive Snowball • Can estimate rare • Time consuming
Sampling characteristics
Cluster • Reduce cost • Imprecise
Sampling • Reduce workforce • Difficult to
• Reduce time interpret result Study smart,
Multistage • Reduce cost • May not not hard!
Sampling • Reduce workforce representative for
• Reduce time a very large
population
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