ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Atom – smallest particle of an

element
Constituents of an atom:
1. Nucleus – positively charged central portion of an atom which
represents the concentrated mass of the atoms..
2. Electron - discovered by J.J. Thomson
- negatively charged subatomic particle found distributed
about the nucleus of the atom
3. Proton – discovered by Eugene Goldstein
- positively charged particles contained in the nucleus of the
atom
4. Neutron – discovered by James Chadwick
- an electrically neutral subatomic particles found within
the nucleus of an atom
The nucleus contains positively charged protons and
uncharged neutrons.

The electron cloud is composed of negatively charged

electrons.
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
The lowest-energy arrangement, or ground-state
electron configuration, of an atom is a listing of the
orbitals that the atom’s electrons occupy.
Electrons are confined to regions of space called
principle energy levels (shells).
Each shell can have 2𝑛2 electrons where n is the
number of the shell (n = 1,2,3,4….)

Ways of Writing Electron Configuration

Orbital box notation

Spectroscopic notation (Longhand way)

C = 1s2 2s2 2p2

Noble Gas Core notation (Shorthand way)

C = [He] 2s2 2p2
RULES TO FOLLOW
RULE 1
The orbitals of lowest energy are filled first, according to
the order
1s → 2s → 2p → 3s → 3p → 4s →3d

RULE 2
Only two electrons can occupy an orbital, and they must
be of opposite spin. (Electrons act in some ways as if they
were spinning on an axis, somewhat as the earth spins.
This spin can have two orientations, denoted as up↑ and
down↓)
RULE 3
If two or more empty orbitals of equal energy are
available, one electron occupies each with the spins
parallel until all orbitals are half-full.
Ex.
Element electron electronic
configuration
H 1 1s1
He 2 1s2
C 6 1s2 2s2 2p2
Practice Exercises
Problem 1.1
How many electrons does each of the following elements have in
its outermost electron shell?
(a) Potassium (b) Calcium (c) Aluminum

Problem 1.2
Give the ground-state electron configuration of the
following elements:
(a) Boron (b) Phosphorus
(c) Sulfur (d) Argon
LEWIS DOT STRUCTURE
Gilbert N. Lewis
Valence shell is the outermost electron shell
of an atom
Valence electrons are used to form chemical
bonds and in chemical reactions.

Lewis dot structure:

The symbol of the atom represents the
nucleus and all inner shell electrons
Dots represent valence electrons
Lewis Dot Structure for Element of Family A

Lewis Model of Bonding

Atoms bond together so that each atom
acquires an electron configuration the
same as that of the noble gas nearest it
in atomic number.
• An atom that gains electrons becomes an
anion
• An atom that loses electrons becomes a cation
• The attraction of an anions and a cation leads
to the formation of an ionic bond
• An atom may share electrons with one or
more atoms to complete its valence shell; a
chemical bond formed by sharing one or more
pairs of electrons is called a covalent bond
• Bonds may be partially ionic or partially
covalent; these bonds are called polar covalent
bonds
QUANTUM MECHANICS
As it has been studied previously, electrons in
atoms are treated as waves effectively than as
compact particles in circular or elliptical orbits.
Such particles like electrons, atoms or molecules
do not obey Isaac Newton’s Law but rather obeys
a different kind of mechanics called quantum
mechanics.
One of the underlying principles of quantum
mechanics is that we cannot determine precisely
the paths that electrons follow as they move
about atomic nuclei (HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY
PRINCIPLE).
Because of this, scientists resort to statistical
approach and speak of the probability of finding
an electron within specified region in space
( ATOMIC ORBITAL).
Quantum numbers are used to designate the
electronic arrangements in all atoms (ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION) and play important roles in
describing the energy levels and the shapes of
orbitals that describe the distributions of electrons
in space
QUANTUM NUMBERS
These are used to describe the energy states that an electron
occupies

1. Principal Quantum Number (n)

This refers to the main shell where the electron is found
K L M N
n=1 n=2 n=3 n=4
2. Subsidiary/Azimuthal Quantum Number. ℓ
This refers to the subshell or sublevel
ℓ = 0, 1, 2, 3
s p d f
– indicates the shape of the orbital
3. Magnetic Orbital Quantum Number, m ℓ
It is the designated particular orbital within the energy
sublevel. It indicates the orientation or position of the
orbital.
It is the region in space where the electron is found most of
the time
- range: m ℓ = - ℓ to m ℓ = + ℓ

Number of orbital
1 3 5 7
Spectroscopic Notation
s p d f
4. Magnetic Spin Quantum Number, m s
It indicates the spin of the electron

m s =+1/2 m s = -1/2
 CHEMICAL BONDS
Bonding is the joining of two atoms in a
stable arrangement.

Through bonding, atoms attain a complete

outer shell of valence electrons.

Through bonding, atoms attain a stable

noble gas configuration
Significance of the number of unpaired
electron
1. It indicates the number of bonds that the atom can form with
another in the formation of a compound.
2. It indicates the covalency number.

Covalency number is determined by the number of unpaired

electron as seen from the electron configuration of the atom
Ex.
• 8O : 1s2 2s2 2px2 2py1 2pz1
• covalency number = 2 ( 2 unpaired e-)
• 7N: 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1
• covalency number = 3 (3 unpaired e-)
 TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS
Ionic bond results from the transfer of electrons from
one element to another.
• Ex. NaCl CaF2 Al2O3
•
Covalent bond results from the sharing of electrons
between two nuclei.
a. Pure/Nonpolar bond - equal sharing of electrons
This is formed by the bonding of similar atoms
• Ex. O2 F2 N2
b. Polar Covalent Bond is formed due to the difference in
electronegativity of atom
- 2 poles (δ+, δ-)
Ex. HCl

c. Coordinate Covalent Bond

The electron being shared comes from only one atom
• Ex. NH3 + H+ → NH4+
 ATOMIC ORBITALS
What do orbitals look like? There are
four different kinds of orbitals,
denoted s, p, d, and f, each with a
different shape.
Orbitals - They represent the
probability of finding an electron in
any one place. They correspond to
different energies. So an electron in
an orbital has definite energy.
Orbitals are best described with
quantum mechanics.
Atomic Orbitals – the region in space
just outside the nucleus of the atom
where the probability of finding the
electrons is at the highest (95%).
An s orbital is spherical, with the nucleus at its center, while a p
orbital is dumbbell-shaped and can be oriented in space along
any of three mutually perpendicular directions, arbitrarily
denoted px, py, and pz . The two parts, or lobes, of a p orbital
have different algebraic signs ( and ) in the wave function and
are separated by a region of zero electron density called a node
 MOLECULAR ORBITALS
It is the region around 2 nuclei occupied by a pair of electron.
It is formed as a result from the overlap of two atomic orbitals,
wherein a pair of electrons occupying.
1. Sigma bonding orbital
- an orbital symmetrical about the axis connecting the nucleus of 2
atoms
- bond is called sigma, δ
2. Pi bonding orbital
- an orbital formed from the side-by-side overlap or lateral overlap of
p orbitals
- bond is called pi,π
- electrons in the bond are loosely held and are of higher energy, the
higher the energy, the greater the tendency of the π bond to break
- π bond is the site of chemical reactivity
•
 EXCITATION OF ELECTRON
• 6C 1s2 2s2 2p2

• ** From the electron configuration of

carbon, we expect it to be divalent since the
2s orbital is filled and only 2px and
2pyorbitals have an unpaired electron to
share. Carbon’s tetravalence is explained by
promoting one 2s electron to a 2p orbital,
creating 4 unpaired electrons during
bonding which is known as the excitation of
the electron
 What is Hybridization?
Hybridization happens when atomic orbitals mix
to form a new atomic orbital.
The new orbital can hold the same total number
of electrons as the old ones.
The properties and energy of the new, hybridized
orbital are an 'average' of the original
unhybridized orbitals.
The types of AO’s to produce a set of equivalent
orbitals known as HYBRID ORBITALS.
Orbitals and Bonding:
Hydrogen
When the 1s orbital of one H atom overlaps with
the 1s orbital of another H atom, a sigma (δ) bond
that concentrates electron density between the
two nuclei is formed.
This bond is cylindrically symmetrical because the
electrons forming the bond are distributed
symmetrically about an imaginary line connecting
the two nuclei.
To account for the bonding patterns observed in more
complex molecules, we must take a closer look at the 2s
and 2p orbitals of atoms in the second row.
Carbon has two core electrons, plus four valence electrons.
To fill atomic orbitals in the most stable arrangement,
electrons are placed in the orbitals of lowest energy

Note: The lowest energy arrangement of electrons for an atom

is called its ground state.
Carbon should form only two bonds because it has
only two unpaired valence electrons, and CH2 should
be a stable molecule. However, CH2 is a very unstable
species that cannot be isolated under typical
laboratory conditions. Note that in CH2, carbon would
not have an octet of electrons
There is a second possibility. Promotion of an electron from a 2s
to a vacant 2p orbital would form four unpaired electrons for
bonding. This process requires energy because it moves an
electron to a higher energy orbital. This higher energy electron
configuration is called an electronically excited state.

But this description is still not adequate. Carbon would form two
different types of bonds: three with 2p orbitals and one with a
2s orbital.
Shape and Orientation of sp3 Hybrid Orbitals
The mixing of a spherical 2s orbital and three
dumbbell shaped 2p orbitals together produces
four hybrid orbitals, each having one large lobe
and one small lobe
The four hybrid orbitals are oriented towards
the corners of a tetrahedron, and form four
equivalent bonds

Characteristics of sp3 hybrid orbital

the shape of 1 sp3 hybrid orbital is like a bowling pin
the 4 sp3 hybrid orbitals form a tetrahedron
the bond angle is 109.5°
each sp3 hybrid orbital has ¼ s and ¾ p character
all bonds formed are sigma bonds
all bonds formed are single bonds (4 single bonds)
Characteristics of sp2 hybrid orbital
• the shape of 1 sp2 hybrid orbital is like a bowling pin
• the 3 sp2 hybrid orbitals form a trigonal planar shape
• the bond angle is 120°
• each sp2 hybrid orbital has 1/3 s and 2/3 p character
• forms 3 sigma bonds and 1 pi bond
• forms 2 single bonds and a double bond
• the unhybridized 2p orbital is perpendicular to the plane of
the sp2 hybrid orbitals
Characteristics of sp hybrid orbital
• the shape of sp hybrid orbital is like a bowling pin
• the 2 sp hybrid orbital form a linear shape
• the bond angle is 180°
• each sp hybrid orbital has ½ s and ½ p character
• forms 2 sigma bonds and 2 pi bonds
• forms a single bond and a triple bond or two double bonds
• the two unhybridized 2p orbitals are perpendicular to each
other and to the line through the two sp hybrid orbitals
 Determining Molecular Shape
Two variables define a molecule’s structure: bond length and
bond angle.
• • Bond length decreases across a row of the periodic table as
the size of the atom decreases.

• Bond length increases down a column of the periodic

table as the size of an atom increases.
 Determining Molecular Shape—Bond Angle

Bond angle determines the shape around any atom bonded to

two other atoms.
The number of groups surrounding a particular atom determines
its geometry.

A group is either an atom or a lone pair of electrons.

The most stable arrangement keeps these groups as far away

from each other as possible. This is exemplified by
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory.
• Drawing Three Dimensional Structures

• A solid line is used for a bond in the plane.

• A wedge is used for a bond in front of the plane.
• A dashed line is used for a bond behind the plane.
A Nonbonded Pair of Electrons is counted as a
“Group”

• • In ammonia (NH3), one of the four groups attached to

the central N atom is a lone pair.
• The three H atoms and the lone pair point to the
corners of a tetrahedron.
• The H-N-H bond angle of 107° is close to the
theoretical tetrahedral bond angle of 109.5°. This shape
is referred to as a trigonal pyramid
• In water (H2O), two of the four groups attached to the central
O atom are lone pairs.
• • The two H atoms and two lone pairs around O point to the
corners of a tetrahedron.
• • The H-O-H bond angle of 105° is close to the theoretical
tetrahedral bond angle of 109.5°. Water has a bent shape,
because the two groups around oxygen are lone pairs of
electrons.
• • In both NH3 and H2O, the bond angle is smaller than the
theoretical tetrahedral bond angle because of repulsion of
• the lone pairs of electrons.
• • The bonded atoms are compressed into a smaller space with
a smaller bond angle