Harri Regional State Climate Change Adaptation Program

H a r a r i P e o p l e R e g i o n a l S t a t e P r o g r a m o f P l a n O n A d a p t i o n t o C l i m a t e C h a n g e 2011
Harari People Regional State

Programme of Plan on Adaption to Climate Change
Regional Task Team Members

1. D/r Sultan Haji Temam Harari Environmental Protection Authority
2. Ato Radi Ayub Harari Environmental Protection Authority
3. W/ro Hana Asnake Harari Environmental Protection Authority
4. Ato Kalid Alwan Harari Health Bureau
5. Ato Fethi Abdulahi Harari Finance and Development Bureau
6. Ato Tesfaye Neri Harari Agriculture and Rural Development Bureau
7. Ato Adib Abdulahi Harar Municipality
Technical and Financial Support:
Environmental Protection Authority of

the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
January, 2011
Harar
H a r a r i P e o p l e R e g i o n a l S t a t e P r o g r a m o f P l a n O n A d a p t i o n t o C l i m a t e C h a n g e Page 1
Contents
Executive summary…………………………………………………………………………………….. ………….. 6
SECTION 1 ........................................................................................................................................................... 9
1. Introduction and background………………………………………. ………………………. 9
1.1 Agriculture and climate change in Ethiopia ……………………………… ……………………………….. 10
1.2 Purpose and method of the review …………………………………………. ……………………………… 11
Section 2 ………………………………………………………………………… …….……………………………13
General profile of the Harari regional state ……………………...............................................13

2.1. Biophysical Features …………………………………………………………………………………………… 13
2.2 General Climate information …………………………………………………………………………………… 14
2.3 Demographic and Socio-economic Features ……………………………………………………………………..14
2.3.1 Migration ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………15
2.4 Resource and Land Use System ………………………………………………………………………………... 16
2.4.1 Land use potential and Agricultural Land holding…………………………………………………………16

2.4.2 Farming System………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 17
2.4.3 Forest………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 17
2.4.4 Livestock population and grazing land……………………………………………………………………..... 18
2.4.5 Water………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 18
2.4.6 Soil …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……. 19
2.4.7 Mineral Resources ………………………………………………………………………………………………………19
2.5 Livelihood of Harari people…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 20
Section 3…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 21
Impacts of climate change in the Harari people Regional state ……………………………………… 21

3.1. Climate change induced hazards and impacts……………………………………………………………………………21
3.1.1. Pattern of local climate (temperature and precipitation)…………………………………………………………….. 21
3.1.2 Temperature variability and trends ………………………………………………………………………………….. 22

3.1.3 Rain fall variability and trends
………………………………………………………………………………………. 22
3.1.4 Drought Impact and Episodes
……………………………………………………………………………………….. 24
3.1.5 Crop pests hazards
……………………………………………………………………………………………………25
3.1.6 Flooding hazards…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 26
3.2 Impact on ecosystem……………………………………………………………………………………………...28
3.2.1 Forest …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..28
3.2.2 Biodiversity…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….28
3.2.3 Land degradation…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 30
3.2.4 Water ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 32
3.3 Human and livestock diseases…………………………………………..……………………………………….. 32
3.3.1. Human diseases………………………………………………........................................................................ . 32
3.3.2 Animal disease………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 36

3.4 Impact on culture, tourism and heritage…………………………………………………………………………. 37
3.4.1 Culture ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 37
Section 4 …………………………………………………………………………………39
Identification of vulnerable sectors and undertaking vulnerability assessment………………………………… 39
4.1 The vulnerable sectors to climate change in Harari People Regional

state…………………………………….39
4.1.1 Agriculture sector …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 39
4.1.1.1 Crop production……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………39
4.1.1.2 Live stock production……………………………………………………………………………………………….40
4.1.2 Water sector……………………………………………………………………………………………………………41
4.1.2.1 Ground Water ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….41
4.1.3 Health sector ……………………………………………………………..............................................................41
4.1.4 Education……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 42
4.1.5 Building…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………43
4.1.6 Biodiversity…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….43
4.1.7 Energy…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..44
4.1.8 Archaeological and cultural resource…………………………………………………………………………….. 44
4.1.9 Heritage and tourism ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 45
4.1.9.1 Heritage………………………………………………………………………………………..………………. 45
4.1.9.2 Tourism……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 48
Section 5………………………………………………………………………………………….50
Adaptive capacities of the Harari communities and their environment……………………………………………50
5.1 Adaptive capacity of Agriculture sector……………………………………………………………………………………50
5.1.1Crop pest and disease…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 55
5.1.2 Ground nut fungal Disease………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 56
5.1.3 Weed control………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 57
5.2 Adaptive capacity of health sector…………………………………………………………………………………………… 59
5.2.1 Human health…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 59
5.2.2 Animal health……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..60
5.3 Early warning system………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 61
5.4 Adaptive capacity of Education sector………………………………………………………………………………………. . 62
5.5 Access to infrastructure…………………………………………………………………………………………………………63
5.5.1 Road……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..63
5.5.2 Telecommunication……………………………………………………………………………………………………….63
5.5.3 Electricity…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………64
5.6 Institutional capacity………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 64
5. 7 Adaptive capacity of micro-finance institution……………………………………………………………………………….. 65
5.8 Adaptive capacity of tourism sector……………………………………………………………………………………………65
5.9 Adaptive capacity of water sector…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 67
5.10 Adaptive capacity of the region for solid waste management……………………………………………………………… 68
Section 6 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 69
Identification and prioritization of response measures needed to enhance regional capacity to climate change
adaptation………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 69
6.1 Addressing climate change impacts………………………………………………………………………………………….. 69
6.1.1 Agriculture…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 70
6.1.1.1 Crop production……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 70
6.1.1.2 Livestock farming…………………………………………………………………………………..……………71
6.1.2 Human health……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 71
6.1.3 Water supply…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 72

6.1.4 Solid waste management………………………………………………………………………………………………… 72
6.1.5 Natural resource management…………………………………………………………………………………………….73

6.1.6 Heritage, culture and tourism …………………………………………………………………………………………….75
Section 7…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… .82
Portfolio of good practices and technologies required for implementation of the identified response measures 82
Section 8………………………………………………………………………………………………………………84
Impact assessment of response measures in order to address possible mal-adaptations…………………………..84
8.1 Emergency Interventions……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 85
8.2 Development Interventions…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 85
Section 9…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….86
Suggested adaptation measures and strategies……………………………………………………………………………………86
Section 10……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 90
Conclusions and recommendations………………………………………………………………………………… 90
References………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 92
List of Tables and Figures
Table2.1 Net in migration rate and %-age of Net in-migration in the overall population growth of Harari
region, 1995-2030………………………………………………………………………………16
Table: 2. - Land use potential in Harari region……………………………………………………………17

Table: 2.3 Commonly Identified Mineral Resources by Estimated Quantity Of deposition and Status 2000 E.C ……………………………20
Table:3.1…………...…………………………………………………………………………………… 23
Table: 3.2 Summary of Major Climate Change Induced Hazards and Possible Impacts on agriculture…..………27
Table: 3.3 some indigenous plants of Harari region……………...…………………………………….. 29
Table: 3.4……………………………………………………………………………………………… 31
Table: 3.5 Top 10 leading causes of OPD mortality in Harari Region by year in E.C.…………………………. 35
Table: 4.1 Estimated fuel wood consumptions 1999 E.C……………………………………………….. 44
Table: 4.2 Annual Tourist Arrivals and its revenue to the region (1997-2001 E.C)…... …………………………. 49
Table: 4.3 Lists of Hotels and their facility (1997-2001 E.C)…………………………………………………….. 49
Table: 5.1 ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 51
Table: 5.2 Annual Production and Productivity of Major Crops (1997-2003) E.C………………………………. 52
Table 5.3 Annual Production and Productivity of Major Crops (1997-2003) E.C………………………………….. 54
Table: 5.4 The distribution of pesticides ………………………………………………………………….55
Table: 5.5 Chart showing the incidence and severity of ground nut fungal disease in low land peasant
associations of Harari………………………………………………………………………….56
Table: 5.6 Distribution and invasion of parthenium weed in Harari region……………………………. 56
Table: 5.7 Extent of the city of Harar has been invaded by parthenium weed…………………………………………………… 58
Table: 5.8 Animal Health Services Provided Since 1997 – 2001 E.C………………………………….. 61
Table: 5.9 Primary & Secondary Enrollment by cycle (1997- 2001) E.C……………………………….62
Table: 5.10 Telecommunication and Number of Clients by Service (1997-2001)E.C……………………63
Table: 5.11 Number of Line length and transformer in Harari Region 2001 E.C……………………… 64
Table: 5.12 Amount of loan disbursed (2006-March, 2010)…………………………………………… 65
Table 6.1 Current potential options for adapting to climate change for vulnerable sectors………………………. . 73
Table: 7.1 Portfolio of good practices and technologies ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 82
Executive summary
Ethiopia is one of the poorest countries in the world and 85% of the population depends on
agriculture and the rest of 15% is also dependent of those agricultural goods for their livelihoods.
When we come to the Harari region context even if the region was known with its older
civilization and development according ti its agricultural products as well as the trade centre for
the eastern part of the country and its well organize cultural heritages development with sui table
living conditions, but now a days due to the climate change impact and related factors on the
region and around those best agricultural practices are diminishing and the trade activities as well
as those well established cultural heritages we suitable living condition started to become
bloored this days.
In order o prepare strategic plan in order to solve and cop the adverse effect of climate change in
Harari region a task –force were established and the task-force consisted of different office
representatives that worked together till the end of the report accomplishment.
In Harari Region temperature various from 100c in highland and 260c in low lands and it has
little variation among seasons. The duration and intensity of rainfall in the region various and
decreases from west to north between 700mm and 900mm respectively. And regarding to
reliability of rainfall for crop production and duration of growth periods; the pattern of rainfall in
the region ereated in three seasons that is kirimt, bega and bulge. In the region about 46.7 % of
land is cultivable and the rest is not suitable for agriculture. Among cultivable land around
42.3% were cultivated land. Mixed farming among those rural kebeles majority of them were
victims of drought for the last continuous years.
In the region there are natural high forest and wood land for high land and land wood and bush
land vegetation for low lands in the past.
From the total economically active population of the region 52.7% were engaged in agriculture
and related sectors and about 18.3% were employed in social, cultural and administrative
activities which about 15% 4.15 and 3.2% were employed in rade manufacturing and transport
respectively.
Internal migration is significant in changing population size and around 22.6% of regional
population is migrants. Among the reasons for mitigation environmental crises and consequence
of famine and drought and due to scarcity of agricultural land efficiency and other natural
resources
Due to decreasing of rainfall and amount of water of different sources water supply coverage of
rural and urban of the region are 25 and 56% respectively.
Temperature variability of the region with the decreased temperature in months of October,
November and December resulted negative impact on crops. On the other side due to un usually
dry spell with high temperatures also affects crops vulnerable at the early vegetative and flowing
stages. Due to un even distribution of rain fall frequency dry spell occurred in the middle of belg
and some time at the end of kiramt that decrease production and productivity as a result for the
last ten years sofi and erer woreda have been affected by droughtt every three years due to this
about 27% of regional population have been affected annually by chronic and acute seller food
shortage which is also due to the frequent of high moest stress that make the crops more
sustainable for crop pest and noxious weed for example the stalk borer crop attack has been
consign more than 20% yield loss every year in the region. Depending on location and amount of
rain fall high run off flood have been occurring seller erosion by sheet and gully erosion
ploughing marginal lands that is land with soil depth 50cm and 30% slop in the general , shallow
in depth poor in fertility and in many places unproductive. Increased rate of erosion resulted
around eight gullies even in Harar town that is threatening the historical heritage of the town.
The Harari region was known with its economic value endogenous fruit and varies wild plants
that are used by the community for different purposes including medicine. But due to the climate
change and it consequences the biodiversity of the region highly affected the climate change is a
threat on those historical heritages of the endogenous people of the region. It also caused water
shortage that lead to many water born diseases like diarrhea inn the people. In addition to
diarrhea the climate change was a factor for different human as well as animal health problems.
Regarding to vulnerable sectors may sectors may sectors are vulnerable among these the
Agriculture sector with its crop production and livestock production wear sector with the
decreasing the amount of “Rainfall, surface water and ground water, Health sector that feed with
border of public health problems precipitated with the climate change impacts, on the other hand
the culture and tourism sector that do have greater visibility in the region is under stress with its
historical archeological , heritage, tangible and intangible cultural aspects and tourism activities
as aholl as well as all service delivery sectors are under stressed.
The adaptation capacity of Harari community in the agriculture sector is doing its best with
agriculture extension, program, different agricultural associations, availing pesticides and Erly
warning system, the Health system is in a better position with its preventive health Extension
program and hundred percent curative health service coverage. The Education sector gross
Environmental rate of primary education is 108.8 percenteum if its un even across and with in
society. Regarding to access to infrastructure the roas development it is 36 percent and 43.6
percent in urban and Rural area respectively the telecommunication service is highest in urban
areas while low in Rural, electricity shares the same scenario with telecommunication, micro
finance activities are developing these days to help those poor’s, the water sector of the region is
on the way to complete Harar sanitation project and the tourism sector is given attention with
strong activities.
So in order to address those climate change impacts in the region the following response
measures are identified
• Introduce drought tolerant crops and moisture conservation agro economic practice.
• Improve the Extension system and utilization of a fertilizer and improved seed
controlling crop pest infestations.
• Strengthening activities related with preventing land degradation and erosion.
• Capacity building for the health sector in order to cope with the challenge of climate
change.
• Develop and improve water sources and maximize use of existing water structure.
• Heritage Conservation the need for a global management that takes in to account jugol’s
immediate environment.
• Integrating Rivers with a preservation policy for “Harar world heritage”
• Inter sect oral collaboration and for their study and research for the climate change
impacts and response measures.
Section 1
1. Introduction and
background
Over the next decades it is predicted that bullions of people particularly those in developing
countries face shortage of water and food or greater risks to health and life as a result of climate
change concerted global action is needed to enable developing countries to adopt to the effects of
climate change that are happening now and win worsen in the future.
The urgency for adaptation is highlighted by projections from the three reports produced by
IPCC in 2007 under a business as usual scenario. Green house gas emissions could rise by 25-90
percent by 2030 relative to 2000 and the earth could warm by 5 0c this country even with a
temperature rise of 1-2.50c. The IPCC predict serious effects including reduced crop yields in
tropical areas leading to increased risk of hunger spread of climate sensitive disease such as,
malaria and increased risk of extinction of 20-30% of all plant and animal species by 2020 up to
250 million people in Africa could be exposed to greater risk of water stress.
Climate change is already impacting populations, livelihoods and ecosystems in Ethiopia.

Exacerbating poverty and leading to infrastructural breakdown and social insecurity, it threatens
to set back development efforts by decades, profoundly affecting all of us. Further, the potential
for natural environmental hazards and future climate change to undermine the country’s
economic development and social progress is great and growing (Aklilu and Alebachew, 2009).
Most of the regions and the people throughout the country are living through a period of rapid
and dramatic changes in ecological and land use patterns. The pace of change in the pattern of
climate and different forms of environmental hazards in the country often exceeds the capacity of
local institutions to adapt to or mitigate the effects of such changes. On the other hand, the
negative impacts associated with climate change are also compounded by the existence of
multiple stressors’ (lack of development, poverty, environmental degradation, population
pressure, etc) which drive vulnerability further \. Some of the challenges of climate change such
as local and regional food insecurity and hunger are still high on the agenda of Ethiopia’s
development goats. It is widely recognized that failure to respond to the challenges posed by
climate change would impede efforts aimed at reducing poverty, inequality and insecurity.
Climate change has a strong and direct bearing on the success of the poverty reduction and
sustainable development strategy of Ethiopia and its humanitarian programs. It adds a new and
largely, uncertain dimension to the development problem of the country by compounding the
risks of natural hazards. It will add to the burden of those who are already poor and vulnerable
by affecting their livelihood pattern and triggering food, feed and water insecurity. Particularly,
global climate change poses particular risks to small farmers and pastoralists who have an
immediate daily dependence on climate sensitive livelihoods and natural resources which limited
economic and technological capacity to mitigate and adapt to climate change impacts. This is
evident already in many parts of the country, and poverty-stricken and disaster-prone agricultural
and pastoral areas will be the worst victims. Ethiopians response to climate change today will
bear directly on the development prospects of a large part of the country’s areas and populations.
IPCC’s regional review of the impacts of climate change identified three vulnerable sectors in
Ethiopia as food security, water resources and health (IPCC, 2001). There is wide consensus that
climate change will worsen food security, mainly through increased extremes and
temporal/spatial shifts. The country already experiences a major deficit in food production in
many areas, and potential increase in extreme events, increased aridity and a decline in
participation, range resources and soil moisture will be an added burden. On the other hand,
changes in temperature and rainfall will have many negative impacts on human and animal
health. Changes in disease vector habitats will expose new population to diseases such as
malaria.
1.1 Agriculture and climate change in Ethiopia
Over 95% of Africa’s agriculture in rain-fed agricultural production, including access to food, in
many African countries and sub-regions is projected to be severely compromised by climate
variability and change. The area suitable for agriculture, length of growing seasons, and yield
potential, particularly along the margins of semi-arid and arid areas, are expected to decrease.
This would further adversely affect food security and exacerbate malnutrition in the continent. In
some countries yield from rain-fed agriculture could be reduced by up to 50% by 2020.
Climate change in Africa is about the survival of millions of poor people. The temperature is
rising and the rain no longer falls at it used to. Farmers and pastoralists who are already living at
the edge of life are finding it harder even to simply get by: Their harvest their animals die of
thirst and hunger and their land is flooded.
Small scale farmers in Ethiopia are likely to bear the brunt of the negative impacts of climate
change in the region, which include increased poverty, water scarcity, and food insecurity,
according to a new Oxfam International report January, 2011. While Ethiopia has always
suffered from great climatic variability, including droughts that have contributed to hanger and
even famine in the past, the report details how climate change is set to make the lives of poorest
even harder.
Ethiopia is one of the poorest countries in the world and 85% of the population depends on
agriculture for their livelihood and the rest of 15% is also dependent of those agricultural goods.
The agricultural sector is especially vulnerable to the adversities of weather and climate since- it
is rain fed, done using relatively basic technologies, and on tiny plots of land.
Woman and girls in particular are disproportionately affected by climatic variability. In times of
crisis, women tend to stay home with their children, while men more away to look for alternative
means of survival. Women also have fewer options to find other ways of making a living
especially since women’s literacy rate is not even half of that of men. Women are also not given
a say in house hold decisions and are frequently without cash saving or assets to sell to buy food
and other basic items.
People are already poor and marginalized are struggling to cope with the added burden of
increasingly unpredictable weather. It is getting harder and harder for families and communities
to bounce back from ever-changing, inconsistent weather affecting their livelihoods, and many
have been forced to sell livestock or remove children from – school – coping mechanisms that
only increase the cycle of vulnerability. When we come to in Harari region context even if the
region was known with its older civilization and development with its agricultural products as
well as trade center for the eastern part of the country and its well organized cultural heritages
development with suitable living conditions but now a days ,due to the climate change impacts
and related factors on the regions around those best agricultural practices are diminished and
those trade activities as well as those well established cultural heritages with suitable living
conditions started to become bloored these days.
1.2 Purpose and method of the review
Ethiopia is vulnerable to extremes of normal climatic variability, and climate change is likely to
increase the frequency and magnitude of some disasters and extreme weather events. Global
warming may worsen existing social and economic challenges in Ethiopia, particularly for those
regions and communities dependent on resources that are sensitive to climate change. It is
already clear that weather variability is affecting Agrarians and Urban population dependent of
those Agricultural goods as well as basic social services like pure drinking water. It is also a
threat to achieving the country’s Millennium development goals which call for eradicating
hunger and poverty, achieving universal primary education, promoting gender equality, reducing
child mortality, improving maternal health, combating diseases and ensuring environmental
sustainability. The negative impact of global warming on the viability of these goals cannot be
understated in Ethiopia.
Government response to climate variability and climate change-induced hazards in Ethiopia is

promising and expanding through time. Past and current development and disaster interventions
in the country have led to improved social service provision, disaster prevention and
management, ecological restoration in some areas, asset protection and livelihood

enhancement/diversification, etc. In this regard, increased capacity to manage future climate
change and weather extremes can reduce the magnitude of economic, social and human damage
and eventually, lead to better resilience and enhanced adaptation capacity. In this case, the
government of Ethiopia has adopted policies, strategies and action programmes which address
climate change directly and indirectly. In many areas, the government executes different
programs from emergency aid and productive safety net programs, disaster prevention and
management, asset protection and livelihood diversification, to conflict management and
resolution. However, government response has to be supported by further research and
knowledge management, enhance financial, technological and logistical support and institutional
capacity building.
In order to prepare the Harari regional state climate change strategic report, Harari Regional task
forces were established. The task force consisted of different sector office representatives that
were worked together till the end of the report accomplishment. The task force used the “Afar
National Regional State Program of Plan on Adaptation to Climate Change” as a bench mark to
develop the term of reference for the report and adopted it with the regional context. While
preparing the report, the task force relied heavily on secondary data, brain storming and expert
opinion. Secondary data has been collected from published and unpublished federal and regional
government documents and other empirical studies on relevant topics. Relevant federal and
regional government policies, strategy documents, proclamations, and reports were critically
assessed. The compilation of the report is also based on an intensive review of available research
reports, internet browsing and informal discussion with experts and representatives of relevant
civil society and government offices.
Although most of the existing national policy and strategy documents and project initiatives are
synergistic for climate change adaptation, there are various challenges and adjustment needs to
be dealt with in order to optimize adaptation gains from on going national initiatives, and to
ensure coordinated effort towards successful implementation of environmental and development
initiatives strategies.
Poor human, logistical and institutional capacity, poor coordination and linkage between federal
and regional organs, oversight of long term environmental impacts of short term economic
benefits, and low level of public awareness limit the effective implementation of existing
environmentally oriented policies and programs and the development of new climate change
adaptation and mitigation plans.
Section 2
General profile of the Harari regional state
2.1. Biophysical Features
Geographically, Harari regional state is located in the eastern part of Ethiopia. The total
geographical area of the region is about 343.21 km2. It is geographically located between 42.03 –
42.16 north of latitude and 9.110-9.240 last of longitude. The region shares common boundaries
with Easter zone of oramia waredas Jarsso wareda in the north and Babile wareda in the east;
Fedis wareda in the south and Haromaya wareda in the west.
Administratively; Harari people’s regional state divided in six urban and three rural
administrative waredas (main kebeles). These administrative kebeles are further divided into 19
sub-kebeles (inurbane) and 17 sub-kebeles (in rural). The region is mainly categorized in two
agro-ecological zones. 90% of the land area of the region is estimated to be mid-high land
(weyna dega), between 1400 – 2200 meter above sea level, while the remaining 10% is kola
(approximately found below 1500 meter above sea level). The settlement pattern of the region is
different from other regions of the country where 62% of the population reside in urban area.
The city of Harar is the capital of Harari people’s regional state; which is located in east at a
distance of 510 Km from Addis Ababa. The elevation above sea level of the city varies from
1600 to 1900 meter above sea level. Its urban morphology represents two main parts, the old city
(Jugal) and the modern one.
Jugal; the historical part of the city which covers a total area of 1 km2 has a estimated total
population of 36,719 according to 2007 CSA. This shows as jugal is one of the high ranking
densely populated area.
The external wall which encircles the old city of jugal separating it from the modern one is
perhaps; the most impressing sign of the ancient splendors. 82 mosques of different dimensions
and beauty more than one hundred holy graves; tombs, and worship places, and nearly more than
two thousand traditional Harari houses which were constructed with mud and special type of
stone (typical private houses of particular cultural and artistic value) and historical buildings
scaffered all over the old city are evidence of its great past (Robert Bianchini).
Harar is one of the rarest cities holding the dual UNESCO title the world Heritage status and the
peace prize city. This is only place in the world where tremendous tourist attractions are situated
within small land area.
In Harari people’s regional state the dominant economic sector is primarily service sector
followed by agriculture. The agriculture is mainly relied up on the seasonal rainfall and
traditional farming method on the other hand, cash crops such as chat use small irrigation;
chemicals, and fertilizers. The farmers making their livelihood by producing food crops are
leading their lives with poverty. The region also known for its fruit production, fruits such as
mango, Banana, Orange, Gishta, Zeytuna and the likes are being produced seasonally on the
other hand, fruits which were being produced defore decades are being extinct, such as
washmalla, kura Byssi; kessa bir etc.
2.2 General Climate information

[
In Harari region the mean annual temperature varies from 10 in high lands and 26 in low lands.
However generally the temperate of the region with a little variation among seasons, the
metrological data of 1997 – 2000 E.C. indicates the mean annual maximum temperature of the
region ranges from 28 in high land and 22 in the low lands. The mean annual minimum
temperature is 10 in high lands and 15 in low lands.
The duration and intensity of rainfall in the region vary considerably. Generally it decreases from
west and North West to south east wards. The last four years record of rainfall shows that
ranging from 700m.m in the south east and over 900m.m in the western part of the region. On
the other hand the highest amount is recorded in Dire Tayara kebele and the lowest amount is
recorded in Erer kebele. Regarding on reliability of rain fall for crop production and duration of
growing periods, the pattern of rainfall in the region treated in three seasons i.e, Kiremt, Bega
and Belg. However, in each of the seasons the rain may begin earlier and lasts before the usual
time.
2.3 Demographic and Socio-economic Features

Harari peoples regional state is populated 183,344 people (CSA 2007) among which 92,258 are
male and 91,023 female. The size of urban dwellers are 99,321 and 84,023 are rural respectively.
The growth rate according to (CSA 2007 report) is 2.6 percent. In terms of age distribution,
about 37.2% under 15 year, 58.8% 16 – 60 years, 4% above 60 years. The region has an
estimated density of 534 people per square kilometer. For the entire region 46,815 households
were counts, which results in an average for the region of 3.9 % persons to a household, with
urban households, having an average 3.4 and rural household 4.6 people.
Interns of Ethnic composition, the main Ethnic compositions are Oromo 52% Harari 7%,
Amhara 32% Gurage 1.8% Tigre 1.7%, Somale 1.6% Argoba 0.8%, Silte, 1.3%, all other 44
nations and nationality group 1.8% respectively. Interims of religious composition, the major’s
(60.2%) of the regional population are Muslim, 38.1% Orthodx, 0.93% protestant, 0.46%
catholic, 0.09% others 0.03% traditional, and 0.19% unidentified Widely spoken languages
(both as Mather tongue and second language in the region are Afar Oromo, Amharic and Harari
67%, 47% and 12% respectively.
2.3.1 Migration
Under normal circumstances, internal migration is a mechanism by which local population adjust
themselves to areas that differs in opportunities and spatial shifts in the pattern of economic
opportunities. This also depends on pull-push factors, people move towards areas which are
believed to be desirable for either economic or non-economic reasons through interplay of push
factors at the place of origin and pull factors at the place of destination.
The following are major push factors force people to leave rural areas in Harari region.
Scarcity of agricultural land and other natural resources due to increase in rural population
size and improper utilization of resources, forest, forest and soil. The size of Harari region
is very small.
Poverty of rural people due to various socio-economic crises.
Environmental crises and the consequence of famine and drought.
Existence of trade in Harar town, especially large scale controband, illegal smuggling of
cattle and chat from the region to neighboring countries have attracted from both rural and
urban areas of the region and neighboring regions people to come and live in the region.
Wages in formal sectors are higher in the urban than rural areas of the region. This has
aggrandized urban ward movement by raising expectation and hop of rural people for better
life in urban areas.
The existence of improved roads in contrast to the small size of the region, has resulted in
increased and rapid migration to the urban center (accessible to the region).
According to 1994 census result, 22.6% of the total population of Harari region is migrants and
the remaining 76.9% were non-migrants. Of the total 29,573 migrants, 26,168 were enumerated
in urban area and 3,040 in rural area. This shows that most of the migrants moved to the urban
center (Harar town). Of the total migrants of the region 12,047 (40.7%) and 17, 5126 (59.3%)
have been residing in the region for 1-6 years and 7-10 years respectively before the year 1994.
Most of the migrants are youth population in the age group 15-34 (66.5%) and most of them are
single.
The role of internal migration in changing population size of the region is highly significant.
According to CSA, of the overall growth rate of 3.5% in the Harari region, net in migration
account for 1.8% in 1995-2000.
CSA has further projected that the net in migration rate will decline to 1.04%) of the overall
3.4% growth rate in 2000-2005, and to 0.84% of the overall 3.2% growth rate in 200502010.
However, based on CSA projection, the trend of the net in-migration increasing the population of
the region will decline through time.
Table2.1 Net in migration rate and %-age of Net in-migration in the overall population growth of
Harari region, 1995-2030.
Year 1995 - 2000 - 2005 - 2010 - 2015 - 2020 - 2025 -

2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Net in migration rate 1.18 1.04 0.87 0.670 0.63 0.60 0.52
%-age of net in 33.7 30.5 27.2 24.1 23.3 23.0 20.8
migration of the
overall growth rate
Source: - Census Analytical Report for country level, 1999, CSA
2.4 Resource and Land Use System
2.4.1 Land use potential and Agricultural Land holding

According to data obtained from Demographic and socio-economic profile of Harar 2002, the
total area of the region is 34,326 hectare the total cultivable land is estimated to be about 16,355
hectares (47.6%), of which 12,725 hectares are under the temporary crops and 3630 hectares are
under the permanent crops on the other hand, about 17965 hectares (about 52 percent) of the
total land area of Harari region is not suitable for agriculture.
The agricultural land holding, according to the agricultural sample census of Harari region with
CSA 2007, the estimate the average land area per house hold and land area per holder of private
farming is 0.52 hectares, the average farm land per household (0.35 CSA 1999) the land
utilization pattern of the region is as mentioned on the above the cultured land 42.3%,
uncultivated land 5.4%, Grazing land 24.0%, follow land 0.8% wood land 1.3% and for all other
uses 25.3%. Mixed farming is the major agricultural characteristics of the region. Atypical
household in the rural area may grow food crops sorghum, maize, horticultural crops etc. On the
other hand in 10 rural sub-kebele of the region are continuously victim to drought due to climate
change and its consequence. According to the Agricultural sample census of Harari region with
CSA 2007, the estimate of average land area per house hold and land area per holder of private
farming is 0.52 hectares.
Table: 2.2 - Land use potential in Harari region
No. Land use Area in ha In %

1 Cultivated land 16355 47.60
1.1 Annual crop 12725 37.00
1.2 Permanent crop 3630 10.60
2 Forest, shrub & bush land 9155 26.7
Others 8810 25.7
Total 34325 100.00
Source: Harari Bureau of Agriculture and rural development, 2009
2.4.2 Farming System
Mixed farming system is the major agricultural characteristics of the region. A typical house
hold in the rural area may grow food crops sorghum, maize, horticultural crops etc. There is no
specialization in the production of particular crops. According to BoFED of Harari region the
total area under cultivation of annual crop ranged from 9671.9 hectare, Total production ranged
from a low amount of 37629 quintals in 2005 has been increased to 202888 quintals in 2010.
Similarly, crop productivity ranges from 3.9 quintals per hectare in 2008 has been increased to
23 quintals per hectare of 2010.these variation were mainly due to the fluctuation in the amount
and distribution of rainfall and agricultural input.
A typical cropping system in the mid altitude (Waynadega) might include Sorghum, maize,
wheat for home consumption and sale; and for a source of basic staple food. There is also a
small plot of oil seeds of pulses and also a variety of horticultural crops chat and vegetable.
These complex systems almost always include live stock. These integrated crops live stock
production activities have coexisted for centuries with live stock providing draught power for
tillage, farm yard manure, and dietary. In kolla area presently, there is rain fed farming in the
existing land with single growing period for short maturing crops.
Most commonly cultivated crops observed are sorghum, groundnut maize, sweet potato haricot
been, vegetables fruits (mango, Banana, Papaya and Citrus). Moreover, a stimulant crop like
sugar cane, chat, coffee and highly valued tree crop has been growing extensively over a large
area of low land.
2.4.3 Forest
Forest are developed and managed in very many ways. Thus could be developed and managed as
productive forests which could be the source of industrial construction and fuel wood and
managed through various systems. In Harari region however, what we can observe is the remnant
of the natural vegetation indicate that the high land area such as Awhakim (Hakim Gara), Aboker
plateau and the north eastern part of Harar town covered with natural high forest and wood land.
This indigenous species remnant indicator also cofirings that the low lands in the eastern and
south east were also covered with low land wood and bush land vegetation in the past.
2.4.4 Livestock population and grazing land

The livestock population rural area Harari peoples region is estimated at 40,780, 5,040 and
41,230 head of cattle, sheep and goat respectively (BoARD, 2001). Cattle comprise 46.4% of the
total livestock population. An estimated 6,316 donkeys and 7190 camels were in the region in
2004/05 with a poultry population of 36,290 (CSA 2005). The poultry production is based on a
traditional backward type of production.
Due to small area of grazing land in the region livestock food in most parts of the high lands and
cut- and – carry system is common feature specially in rural areas crop residues, thinning forum
sorghum, maize, and weeds are used during the dry season after harvesting thinning and weeds
are generally available during wet season
2.4.5 Water
In the region there are a number of small streams and three rivers. The three rivers (hamaresa,
bisidimo and erer rivers together with streams flow to Wabe Shebelle river in Somali region. The
above stated water resources and various springs were used to provide the region with
considerable amount of water for domestic use and even for irrigation purposes. Due to various
environmental problems climatic change some streams and springs were dried, while the volume
of the existing small streams and reveres as well as the discharge rate of springs have been
decreasing from time to time. leave alone for other purposes water resource for basic use
(domestic consumption) have been a critical issue both in urban and rural area of the region since
adduced. (Specially Harar town is suffering a lot for the last 2 deceased due to drying of
Haromaya Lake, between of high temperature and erosion, that were serving as a source of
drinking water.
According to the recent data, water supply coverage of urban and rural area of the region is 25
and 56 percents respectively. The source of drinking water 73.3% is safe water and 26.6% unsafe
water. All kinds of traditional and few developed water supply source are being used by people.
In this regard, river (sand scratch) and unprotected spring plays important role in providing
domestic and livestock water supplies for more than 70% of the households. In the region about
18.4% of households using protect spring and 6.8% of the households use hand dug wells.
2.4.6 Soil
The major soil types which occur in the harari region are nitisols, Luvisols, Arnosols, and
Aerosols nit sols (distinguished by their shiny pad surface) occupy 2792.5 ha and luvisols (soils
which has a action exchange capacity (cec) equal to ot greater than 24 mol clay) occupy 2440
hectare Regosols (medium and fine textured) occupy 6,017.5 hectare and Aerosols (coarse
textured with weak pedogenetic characteristics in the B horizon) occupy 4575 hectare.
The wet land found in eastern boundary of the region following the Erer river occupy about
487.5 hectare which is poorly drained and partially used locally for sugar cane production.
The ridge tops which are marginal for arable agriculture occupy about 815hectare (Hakim gara).
2.4.7 Mineral Resources

The mineral resources and deposits of the region have not thoroughly investigated. Yet some of
the already identified deposits are under explored. The most commonly identified mineral
resources are, limestone, stone, sand, dolomite, marble and kaolin are found in different rural
area kebeles and Harar town areas.
Currently, private investors, government organization and local cooperatives have been engaged
in the production of lime stone, granite, dimension stone, stand and dolomite marble. But some
areas are environmentally affected and need the affection.
According to water, mining and energy bureau, though the reserve estimated deposit of Colin is
identified, it requires further investigation for exploiting. Thus in the near future it will be
promoted for production and will be used as a raw material for ceramic and other related
industries. The occurrence of amethyst, quartz garment, tourmaline and other non metallic
minerals are reported which requires thorough investigation.
Table 2.3 Commonly Identified Mineral Resources by Estimated Quantity Of deposition and
Status 2000 E.C
Unit Quantity of Deposition and Status

Types of Minerals
No Estimated Quantity (m3) Status
1 Lime stone 60,000,000 Under Exploitation
2 Granite 15,000,000 Under Exploitation
3 Dimension stone 5,000,000 Under Exploitation
4 Sand 1,000,000 Under Exploitation
5 Dolomite Marble 150,000 Under Exploitation
6 Kaolin 3,000,000 Under Exploitation
2.5 Livelihood of Harari people
According to CSA, 1994, by deducting unemployed persons without work experience

from the total economically active population of the region the remaining, active
population was 48,763. Accordingly, out of 48,763 economically active, population of
the region, 52.7 percent were engaged in agriculture and related sectors, about 18.3
percent employed in social, cultural and administrative activities while about 15 percent,
4.1 percent and 3.2 percent were employed in trade, manufacturing and transport and
other related activities respectively. Except trade, in all occupations the proportion of the
male was relatively higher than the female. However, in trade sector the proportion of
female was significantly higher than male. The major occupation in the rural area is
agriculture and related sector /94.2 percent/, while the urban occupation is dominated by
service administrative/ 39.7 percent/, trade /27.7 percent/, manufacturing /8.7 percent/,
and transport and other related activities/ 7.0 percent/. Thus, the economy of the region
relies mainly on agriculture, trade and other service sector.
Section 3
Impacts of climate change in the Harari people Regional state
3.1. Climate change induced hazards and impacts
It was noted that the Agro-climatic zone of the region falls on “wana dega” and “kalla” as locally
expressed.
The climate change with effect a recurrent drought, population pressure, and environmental
degradation aggravated the food insecurity of the region. Especially in low land area disruption
on the performance of any rainy season well have impact on the availability of water as well as
the overall food security situation of the farming community.
For the last sixteen years the major types of climate and Agricultural in-stability affecting the
region were erratic, Absence and uneven distribution of rainfall which Leeds to Hydrological,
and Agricultural drought, pests and animal diseases were some of the agents causing chrome
food shortage.
3.1.1. Pattern of local climate (temperature and precipitation)

The climatic condition of the region falls in “wana dega” and “kollo” agro ecological zone where
10.7 kolla, 22.8% of the area Kolla with “wana dega.” The rest is wana dega starting from the
elevation 1600-1800 mast covers about 66.5% masl, and most of these are found in the western
and south west part of the region (PEDB 2000).
According to meteorology record (2000-2009) revealed that the mean annual maximum and
minimum temperature record shows 250 and 130c respectively. Likewise rain fall is bi-modal
throughout the region with the long term mean annual rain fall 750mm (BOFED, 2006).The
region Agriculture entirely depends on two rain fall season:-
1. The balg season – Occurs normally from the end of February the end of may
2. The Maher season – Occurs normally from mid june to September mostly contributing
above 48.8% of rain fall.
3.1.2 Temperature variability and trends
There has been a general trend of atmospheric warming in Ethiopia. According to the National
Metrological Agency (NMA, 2007) the average minimum temperature in Ethiopia has been
increasing by 0.37 0c per decade in the last sixty years. In the Ethiopia highland, the temperature
has been increasing by 0.30c per decade (Muna, 2006)
It is known that the degree and intensity of temperature determines: The rate of vapor-
transpiration, soil moisture content and humidity of the atmosphere.
The metrological data of 2000-2009 indicates that the monthly averages maximum temperature
of the region ranges from 28.40 to 22.60 c likewise, monthly average minimum temperature
ranges from 5.10 to 160 Celsius. Mostly the warmest months are February to May while the
coldest months are October November and December.
The temperature decrease in months of October, November and December; occasionally which
have a negative impact on crops, particularly at Sukul, Hassangey and around dereteyara area.
Due to these weather conditions with high humidity frost occasionally plant killed by frost. In
addition to this, due to unusually dry spell with high temperatures by increasing the transpiration
can cause permanent welting through moisture stress. So those crops are more vulnerable at the
early vegetative and flowering stages.
3.1.3. Rain fall variability and trends
An analysis of the average annual rain fall trends in the past four or five decades in Ethiopia
shows a more or less constant trend (NMA, 2007). However, an increasing trend of rain fall was
observed in central Ethiopia while an overall declining trend was recorded in the water stressed
northern and southern lowland regions.
In the region, rain fall is low and erratic when it comes, the rain is heavy, and has a weak bi-
modal pattern. Mostly the trend was early onset of rain fall, starts in 1st 10 days of march and
ends rain fall early in September early onset of the rains there are traditionally accustomed times
of on-set of the belg and meher season which the farmers have been cop up as the rain starts as
possible.
In order to utilize the initial soil moisture, however, there is a high probability of discontinuity
the rains at a time of un-normally early onset. Therefore, farmers in the region are mostly
suspicious to sow the seeds earlier than normal time.
Besides, the annual rain fall is highly variable. According to Harar metrological station the last
nine years (2000-2009) record of the annual total rain fall shows that was ranging between
636.7mm to 917.9mm and the average rain fall data is 757.7mm.
Generally rain falls from march to October, with the months of February to may, ie, (Belg)
contributing 42.1% and June to September the rest (keremt) contributing a little above 48.8%,
Finally the months from November to January are usually dry period contributing the rest 9.1%
of the total annual rain fall.
However, as we have mentioned on the above statement in each of the season the rain may begin
earlier and lasts before the usual time. This has impact on the reliability of the rain fall. Besides,
due to sacristy and un even distribution of rain frequently dry spell accrued in the middle of Belg
and some time at the end of kirmt i.e. early withdrawal of the rain could have a power to
decrease production and productivity in addition to these depending on location and amount of
rainfall, high run off flood have been occurring, sever erosion and land degradation are serious.
Gullies are common; especially degraded water shed areas.
Since, Harari region is dependent of rain fall, the condition of the rains have been a prime factor
for endemic food crises in the region.
Table 3.1
Total annual rain fall of Harari region

Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Rainfall
- 796.9 917.9 715.00 636.7 771.6 - 772.00 714.00 738.00
(mm)
Source: Meteorological station branch office of Jijga & Harar 2010.
3.1.4 Drought Impact and Episodes
Drought is a continuous dry weather and a state in which demand for water exceeds the supply,
for specific water use purposes. And it occurs when a major change takes place in global wind
circulation, and irregular weather features appear. In recent years the theory that “ELNINO
events” are a major cause of drought in Africa has become widely accepted.
And it is the single most important climate related natural hazard impacting the country as well
as the regional from time to time. In East Africa in general and in Ethiopia in particular,
recurrent droughts are the main causes of disasters involving significant human casualties.
Drought occurs when there is no enough rain falls to support crop and animal production. As we
know drought harms many aspects of the agricultural system: The ecosystem of the area, its
hydrology and water resources, Agriculture and food security, and human settlement and health.
(RELMA, 2005).
For years, Ethiopia has been threatened by cyclic drought, induced famines that caused a large
Haman deaths and dislocations.
When we see chronology of Ethiopia drought and famine starting from the previous one:
1971 – 75 – Due to the cause of sequence of rain failure, estimated ¼ millions dead 60% of live
stock lost In Tigray wallo.
1978 – 1979 southern Ethiopia failure of belg rain
1982 – Late maher rain in Ethiopia as a whole
1984 – 85 – Due to sequence of rain fall 8mellione affected, estimated 1 millions dead heavy live
stock losts.
1987 – 88 – Droughty of undocumented severity on peripheral regions
1990 - 91 - Rain failure estimated 3-6 Million people suffering food shortages. (Hail, 1995).
1997 & 2002/3 14 million livelihood affected drought that have been Resulted in poor crop
production and economy.
This shows the frequency of rainfall deviation from the overage suggested that drought occur
every 3 -4 years.
In the case of our region, the most immediate cause of hydrological and Agricultural drought is
meteorological drought-ie; absence and an even distribution of rainfall but there are other, human
– induced causes: Environmental degradation, misuse of water resource, in appropriate farming
practices and rising populations etc.
For the past ten years in Harari Region Sofi and Erer woreda specially in “Kalla” and in some
place of “wana dega” areas have been affected by drought (dry spell) that have been occurred
every 3 year: this incident occur due to moisture stress during a time of key water demand of
crops (early growth flowering, seed setting) results in a total crop loss.
During the time of this absence and uneven distribution of rain fall the farming community
becomes the most poverty stricken area and reputedly exposed to droughty which lead to famine.
Hence averagely 24684 that accounts (27%) of population of the region people have been
affected annually by chronic and acute sever food shortage and about 4013.4 MT of food Aid
have been distributed (BoARD, EWR).
In addition to this drought impact include decreased water availability leading to General stress
and scarcity of water, traveling over long distances by woman and children in search of water
have been observed especially in kolla area.
Generally the crop failure, decreasing live stock disease resistance, pasture availability, and
disappearance of same important indigence’s tree species, are the most serious impact of drought
in the region
3.1.5 Crop pests hazards
Mostly, the pest population increase and eruption rate is determent by climatically condition and
Environmental factors. For example under condition of heavy rain and high humidity the
occurrence of blights on potatoes, maize and hart cult Ural crops will be serious.
In case of Harari the frequent of high most stress could make the crops more sustainable for crop
pest and noxious weeds. Among economically important crop pests in the region, stalk borer &
army worms are known for their casual of devastating damage to cereal crops namely sorghum
and maize Striga, peritoneum and Cyprus are the noxious weed so for known for their having
high damage to cereals crops.
According to the data of regional early warning yearly crop & food security assessment report,
the stalk borer crop attack has been causing more than 20% yield lose every year in the region
and has direct damage of severity level could be out of 425ha / of Land the damage will be 7417
Quintal (EWRP Jan 2010) .
Striga :- The striga species that was causing mild attack to cereals crops before and after the
establishment of the region is striga sciatica. But after recent time (4-6 years) the worst striga
could call striga Hermontica appeared.
Soon after it disseminated and infesting almost all PAs of the region within remarked short
period of time and covered 640.8 ha. (EWRP Jan 2010)
Groundnut fungal disease:- The fungal disease had been obserbed, in cropping year (1992/93
EC). The Hazard of this disease is very devastating and could cause more than 20% complete
damage and about 7% partial damage (EWRP 2010).
Parthenium:- Weed is an epidemic weed quite only known in USA, Australia, Indai, and in East
Africa Kenya, Somalia, is now known to invade substantial area of Ethiopia’s road side, farm or
forst land in general and Harari regions in particular with the expansion of the weeds to even
cities, recreational sites, all are invaded by the weeds & it causes forage short falls at alarming
rate as a result of which milk yield reduced in quality and quantity and bitter tests results up on
cattle feeding it, sore of the skin for result, Asthma sickness is exasperated by the weeds
presence to a given area and Environmental pollution results, ecological disturbances also results
as the weed colonizes every grazing all grass feeding domestic or wild animals have no choice
but to flee or immigrate to new places in search of grass or forege to feed. (BOARD, Nov 2010)
Harar.
3.1.6 Flooding hazards
Flood disasters are occurring more frequently particularly in low-lying areas around Errer River.
Occasionally accord too in Harari town in the vicinity of “kelad Amba” and the upper stream
land of Harar town near river valise, that caused by over population as a result of deforestation,
and serious environmental degradation.
In the low land area, particularly in Errer valley submersion of all annual crops at the early
growth stages will often result in uprooting, and killing the crop.
At later growth stage, prolonged partial flooding, or water logging, limits crops like sorghum,
maize and vegetables transpiration of nutrient uptake and suppressing growth or killing the
crops. So that all house hold that leaves near river and there mature crops will be vulnerable to
lodging and grain rot.
Table: 3.2 Summary of Major Climate Change Induced Hazards and Possible
Impacts on agriculture
No Hazard (Events) Local Indicators Impacts

1 Drought - Deficit of rainfall with - Increased transpiration could cause welting through
prolonged dry spell. moisture stress, followed by crop failure.
- Permanent crop welting - Decreased water availability leading to shortage of
pastured grazing land.
- Decreased live stock productivity and disease
resistance.
- Increase school dropout due to shortage of food intake.
- Reducing income.
- Increased level of poverty.
- No of 16136 population chronically food in secured.
2 Flooding - Heavy rainfall generated - Sub-merged of annual crops at the early growth stages
floods caused by the will often result in uprooted, killed the crops.
reduction of the stability of At later growth stage, prolonged partial flooding, or
catchments etc. water logging, limited plant transpiration (nutrient)
- Sudden run-off uptakes, suppressing growth, and possibly uprooting
- Decrease productivity and income.
- Loss of few livestock and property.
3 Pest and disease Due to pests bacterial or - Resulted in severe defoliation or crop loses.
fungal disease etc. heavy
damage or calamity occurs in
plant leafs, stems or root
systems etc. partially or as
whole.
4 Weeds - Compete with crop plants - Evidenced in poorer yields.
for nutrients, light, water - Huge loss of forage grazing.
and space. - Competing & reducing cereals yields as well as quality
- Occurring in large quantities product of livestock’s.
beside or inside crop land.
5 Ground frost Weather condition with very Occasionally around kille PA on vegetables Sukal,
low temperature. Hassonge & Dire Teyara area on any crops, Frost have
White powder like, coating of been caused “chat” leaf and grain damage,
frozen vapor on the ground, Limiting biological growth, and yield.
and plants etc.
6 Un usually heavy Rain drops falling from the Shattered mature stem crops was common,
rainfall and strong sky, coming in great numbers Strong risk for stem crops around mid land area (Dire
hail storms. and force and sometimes Teyara, Moti, Sukol, Sofi etc.)
combined with high winds Damaged crops.
Crop failure.
7 Livestock disease Depression and anorexia. Reduced productivity.
Weak physical appearance. Dies of animals.
Severe illnesses. Reduced livestock breed.
A partial or complete drop in Decreased weight.
production may occur. (egg, Increase morbidity rate.
milk, meat.
Low reproductive capacity.
3.2 Impact on ecosystem
3.2.1 Forest
Ethiopian Agriculture and forest almost entirely depends on natural rainfall, which have been
increasingly unreliable over the past decades, so that the condition of the rains has been a prime
factor for the disappearance and damage of forest. And drying of weathering points under
condition of prolonged dry spell could be the cause of wetting through moisture stress, burn or
discolor the surface of leaves of trees that might be the risk of damage especially in lowland area.
Besides decline in farm lands productivity and production as one of the manifestations of land
degradation is caused mainly due to the decline in soil fertility is mainly caused by cutting or not
planting the trees, notably, the indigenous trees which are important for nitrogen fixation. In
order to promote the fertility and productivity of farm lands, one of the feasible intervention
areas is the introduction of on farm and home forestry practices.
3.2.2 Biodiversity
The inter governmental panel on climate change (IPCC) reviewed relevant published studies of
biological systems and concluded that 20% to 30% of biological systems may be at risk of
extinction from climate change impacts whether this century if global mean temperatures exceed
2-30c (3.6-5.40f) relative to pre-industrial levels (IPcc,2007).
This climate changes can cause adverse or beneficial effects on species by increasing their
ranges. The resulting impacts on ecosystems and humans, however could be positive or negative
depending on whether these species were invasive (e.g. weeds or mosquitoes) or if they were
valuable to humans (e.g. food crops or pollinating insects). The rise of extinction could increase
for many species especially these that are already endangered or at risk due to isolation by
geography or human development low population numbers, or a narrow temperature tolerance
range.
In the last 2-3 decades Harari region was known to one of the potential area for the production of
agricultural products including high economic value fruits. The vegetation of the region
predominantly composed of various species such as ground nuts, mango, orange and coffee
which had high economic value for the region and indigenous forest trees. It was also a place for
crop species with genetic diversity. There was also various wild plants that are used by
communities for various purpose including medicinal use.
However, at the moment, it is one of the regions which is highly affected by environmental
degradation and recurrent drought caused by climate change.
The main environmental problem of the region is loss of vegetation cover, deforestation
including the remnant trees such as Magnifiera indicia (mango).
An aggravated environmental degradation had resulted into decreasing agricultural production

and shortage of water supply, devastation of natural forest cover as well as biodiversity loss and
even to expansion of desertification. Out of three rural weredas (Sofi and erer) which constitute
11 Kebeles are characterized by low and unreliable distribution of rain fall, degraded soils, poor
and scanty vegetation cover and frequent droughts and famine. Out of 17 sub kebeles of the area,
10 sub-kebeles continuously are victim to drought. Some of the major factors in the region are
shortage of farm land, decreasing fertility of land, deforestation, shortage of rain distribution and
none improved traditional farming.
Table:3.3 some indigenous plants of Harari region

Local name Common name Scientific name
Wanza - Cordial Africa
Kugnee -
Sobla -
Kurkura - Zizphus spp.
Wager - Olea Africa
Hasad - Cuphorbia spp
Kinthib. -
21Fruit plants
Tini - Cactus spp
Agam - -rosa abissinice
Harashi bisi -
Aquya/qobo - Risious communis
Amba Mango Magnifera indica
Zeitun Gnava Psidiam guaue
Gishta - Annonos syp-
Muz Banana Mussa paradisca
Washmala - -
Burtukhan Orange -
Safer jain - -
Darbisi/tuto - -
Mandarine - -
Khukhi Peach Prunus persiea
Fursukh - -
Hangora - -
Ruman - -
QurQura Bisi - -
Qura bisi - -
Kassabir - -
Ambarout - -
Turungo - -
Source: HPRS, Regional conservation strategy
3.2.3 Land degradation

Land degradation is the most series environmental problem of Harari region. It has many causes
including soil erosion by sheet and gully erosion ploughing marginal lands that is land with soil
depth 50cm and > 30% slope. Removal of crop residues for livestock feed and for fuel wood
without replacement, overgrazing, continued loss and degradation of shrub area for construction
and fuel wood purpose and lack of crop rotation and Appropriate soil conservation measures.
Unplanned development of various types of land use is also another factor that contributes to soil
erosion land degradation. Thus soil of the majority of Agricultural lands in the region is in
general, shallow in depth poor in fertility and in many places un productive. Truncated sub soil
and /or saproliter exposed on steeper slopes. The increasing rate of erosion across moderate and
steep slopes of the region and its devastating results is clearly notices even in Harar town. The
gullies developed in the town are existing examples.
The large gullies in Harar town and its surrounding clearly demonstrate that is an issue which
requires proper Attention and immediate intervention to enhance sustainable development of
Harar and to conserve the Natural resource in the area and the historical heritage of the town and
pass it to the coming generation. The following are some of the major gullies in the town which
are currently posing a very serious danger to the natural resources, Infrastructure of the town and
cultural heritage of Harar
Table 3.4
Physical character of the gullies

No Location of the gullies Depth in (m) Width(m) Length in (m) Major Impacts
. Destroyed and made the road out of
service
Abadir-kebele 05(Near . formation of small gullies
1 2-3 5-5 100
jegol Buda Ber) Crated serious problem to children to
go school
. poses danger to the historical jegol wall
. Knocked down fences
. Destroyed and made the roads out of
2 New stadium kebelle17 O.5-2 5-10 .>100 service
. Created serious problem to the
neighboring residential housing
. Made the land (plots allotted for
residential house construction) out of
3 Aboker-kebele 13 >10 10-15 >100 use
. Remains 1m to reach old stadium
. Destroyed the road from SOS to TTI
. Destroyed the road
. made the land (plots allotted for
4 Hakim -kebele17 1-3 2-6 >200
residential house construction) out of
use
. Destroyed the road for pedestrian on
5 Jinela -kebele 14 the asphalt road from DPPO to poice
>1 3-4 >60 hospital
. Exposed the pipe line
. fell the electric pole
. Made the road from majida housing
Shenkor – kebele 08 cooperative to segicha kebele out of
6 use for vehicle
1-15 1-4 200
. knock down the fences of the
residential compound
. Broken the pipeline
. Destroyed the foundation of walls of
7 Kebele 09 2 2-4 residential houses knocked down fences
. Destroyed and made land out of service.
. Destroyed and made roads out of service
8 Kebele 13 . cat of the residents in the area from the rest
of the town
1 6 >40
. destroyed the foundation of wall of
residential housing
. knocked down fences
3.2.4 Water
In the region there are a number of small streams & three rivers. The three livers (Hamaresa,
Bisidimo & Erer Rivers) together with streams flow to the wabi shebele river in Somali region.
The above stated surface water resources and various springs were used to provide the region
with considerable amount of water for domestic water use and even for irrigation propose. Due
to various environmental problems some streams and springs were dried while the volume of
existing, small streams and river as well as the discharge rate of springs have been decreasing
from time to time. Leave alone for other purposes, water resource for basic use (domestic
consumption) have been a critical issue both in urban and rural area of the region since adduced.
Thus, currently water supply is the top development agenda of the region.
According to the recent data water supply coverage of urban and rural areas of the region is 25
and 29.1 percents respectively. Hence the prevailing situations indicate that there are about 75
percent and 70 percent shortage in urban and rural areas respectively. The water supply coverage
before five years was 33 percent for urban and 3 percent for rural which shows that problem in
the urban area has been worsening through time while for rural area the posited is tone.
3.3 Human and livestock diseases
3.3.1. Human diseases

Even though, our previous knowledge and concern related to the impact of climate change on
human health was less. It is must these days to consider and give attention for those human
health problems associated with the global climate change.
Climate change and increased temperature affects human health directly or indirectly. That is
also true for health problems in the region. In Harari region the burden of disease as well as
health related problems proximal as well as distal factors which share the same scenario with that
of national one. Before directly assessing regional climate change impact on the health sector
first let’s review some literatures.
It appears likely that global mean temperature increases will continue, and projections
Into the future predict a variety of possible related impacts in general, such as more
Volatile weather patterns, increased incidence of hot spells, and changing Precipitation patterns
that may include more intense rainfall patterns, as well as changing and intensified drought
patterns.
Generally the most pressing health hazards associated with climate change are
1. Extreme Storms Will Affect Health and Infrastructure:
Science tells us that global warming has contributed to more hurricanes and intense storms in
the North Atlantic during the last several decades. Increased storm wind speeds and more
intense rainfall are projected as the climate warms. More severe storms and floods can lead to
drowning, injuries, and outbreaks of infectious disease. Storms also damage basic
infrastructure, with moisture leading to mold growth that can exacerbate allergies and
respiratory illnesses.
2. Heat Waves Will Lead to Increased Death and Illness:
As temperatures increase, so do the number of deaths and illnesses occurring from heat
exhaustion or heatstroke, cardiovascular disease, and kidney disease. Extreme heat waves
cause the most harm among elderly and young children. City dwellers are at particular risk
because of elevated temperatures in cities, known as the “urban heat island effect.”
3. Air Pollution Will Contribute to More Smog and Respiratory Illness:
Rising temperatures will increase ozone smog in many areas, especially in cities. Increasing
levels of ground-level ozone are associated with increased hospital admissions for people with
respiratory diseases such as asthma and will worsen the health of people suffering from
cardiac or heatstroke, cardiovascular disease, and kidney disease. Extreme heat waves cause
the most harm among elderly and young children. City dwellers are at particular risk because
of elevated temperatures in cities, known as the “urban heat island effect.”
4. Pollen Allergens Will Proliferate:
Higher temperatures and increased levels of carbon dioxide may cause allergenic pollen
season to start earlier, last longer, and be more intense. For example, higher levels of carbon
dioxide can cause ragweed to produce 60 percent more pollen than normal. With increases in
airborne pollen, those who suffer from seasonal allergies are likely to experience worse
symptoms, including high fever and asthma.
5. Mosquito- and Tick-Borne Infectious Diseases Will Spread More Widely:
Climate change will affect the patterns of diseases such as malaria, West Nile virus, dengue
fever, and Lyme disease. Warming temperatures and increasing amounts of rainfall have been
associated with increases in the occurrence and transmission of insect-borne diseases, and
higher temperatures lead to more rapid development of dangerous pathogens within insect
carriers. Warming temperatures allow these diseases to expand their range into new, once
cooler, regions.
6. Drinking Water Will Become Increasingly Contaminated:

Outbreaks of water-borne diarrheal diseases caused by parasites, like Giardia and
Cryptosporidium, have been associated with heavy rainfall events, which are likely to become
more frequent due to global warming. The impact of global warming on the safety of water
supplies will be most severe in developing countries, as well as Ethiopia and our region as
well where water treatment is less available.
7. Water and Food Supplies Will Be Threatened:

Global warming is expected to worsen floods and droughts, threatening the availability of
water for drinking and irrigation. Droughts diminish food variety, nutritional content, and
availability—all of which can contribute to malnutrition, infectious diseases, and starvation.
One analysis predicts that by the year 2060, there will be an additional 40 to 300 million
people at risk of malnutrition from human-caused climate change. And global warming’s
higher temperatures can increase the risk of food-borne illnesses. There Will Be Large
Numbers of Environmental Refugees: The United Nations estimates that in the next 10 years
there will be up to 50 million “environmental refugees” people forced to migrate from their
homes by a range of climate change-related environmental disasters like floods, droughts, and
desertification. Health among these refugees will be threatened by associated increases in
urban crowding, lack of water, and transmission of infectious diseases as well as stress and
mental health problems among those displeased people.
Since the health sector development is emerging activity these days in the region and as a
national it is difficult to get much enough data and information to analyze and see the trend of
those health aspects and identify the impact of climate change. The other difficulty here is that
the other risk factor other than climatic change should have to be clearly identified to roll out the
impact of climate change in the regional context.
In order to help the regional task force to identify the impact of climate change in the health
sector of the region it was tried to use the top ten leading cause of OPD morbidity, admission and
mortality that may show the Sevier health problems even if it lacks representativeness to show
the overall health problems of the society. So let’s see those data’s in a table form and discus
them each from the points mentioned above as pressing health hazards associated with climate
change as general
Table 3.5 TOP 10 LEADING CAUSES OF OPD MORTALITY IN HARARI REGION BY

YEAR IN E.C
Rank 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
st
1 A.U.R.I A.U.R.I A.U.R.I A.U.R.I U.T.I
nd
2 All type of All type of All type of All type of A.U.R.I
fever malaria fever malaria fever malaria fever
malaria
rd
3 U.T.I Pneumonia Pneumonia Pneumonia Violence
& other
internal
injury
th
4 Home side U.T.I U.T.I U.T.I Pneumonia
injury
th
5 Pneumonia P.U.D All accidental Trauma All type of
cause (injury, diarrhea
fracture…)
th
6 All form of TB Home side P.U.D All type of Trauma
injury diarrhea (injury,
fracture…)
th
7 P.U.D All form of TB Gastrointestinal Violence & Dyspensia
other
internal
injury
th
8 All accidental All accidental Home side All type of
cause cause injury Unspecified fever
disease of malaria
eye &
adnexa
th
9 Gastrointestinal Gastrointestinal Dysentery Dyspepsia Acute
febrile
illness
th
10 Helmithine Infection Dysentery Acute febrile Other
illness(AFP) unspecified
dis. Of eye
& adnexa
Based on data obtained from regional health bureau about 10 leading causing OPD (Mortality)
we can see that Acute Upper Respiratory Infection (A.U.R.I), malaria, pneumonia, tuberculosis,
and all form of diarrhea were the leading morbidity among OPD (outpatient department) of
health institutions, which are the implications for the direct or indirect climate change impact
associated with human health.
Based on data obtained from regional health bureau about 10 leading causing OPD (Admission)
we can see that malaria, pneumonia, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, cataract, and all form of diarrhea
were the leading admission among OPD (outpatient department) of health institutions, which are
the implications for the direct or indirect climate change impact associated with human health.
Based on data obtained from regional health bureau about 10 leading causing OPD (Death)
between 1997 -2002 we can see that malaria, pneumonia, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, malnutrition,
anemia, and all form of diarrhea were the leading mortality/death among OPD (outpatient
department) of health institutions, which are the implications for the direct or indirect climate
change impact associated with human health.
3.3.2 Animal disease
Ethiopia’s potential in terms of live stock resource is perfectly clear, however, a number
constraints need to be addressed. The widely prevalent live stock disease is one of the major
obstacles that are seriously decimating the countries’ live stock development and trade there by
undermining investment in a potentially valuable economic activity which would increase
employment in rural areas, raise, rural incomes and assist in alleviating poverty.
Most animals disease have the potential to adversely affect human populations by reducing the
quantity and quality of food, their livestock products (hides, skin, fibers) and animal power
(traction, transportation) that can be obtained from a given quantity of resource and by reducing
people’s assets among the major economically important disease that are currently affected the
live stock economy are external parasite (lice, ticks) as well as internal parasite such as
pulmonary parasites, gastro intestinal affecting all stocks of animals are common in the region on
and several infectious disease like pasteurollesis, food and mouth disease (PMD) that highly
contagious viral disease of cloven hooved animals with significant economic impact, in cattle as
well as sheep and goats. In addition during absence of feed live stock will be susceptible for any
kind of communicable and endemic disease so that climate change will have impact on animal
health, that hinder not to produce more meat, milk and resist disease.
3.4 Impact on culture, tourism and heritage
3.4.1 Culture
The main climate change parameters affecting cultural heritage are temperature change,
atmospheric moisture change, sea level rise, wind, desertification, pollution and biological
infestation (WHC 2006). Rising temperatures are melting polar and high altitude ice and snow
and are causing the thermal expansion of seawater, resulting in an uneven global increase in
moisture. This supercharging of the hydrologic cycle results generally in higher humidity, greater
precipitation, higher sea levels, and more groundwater. Yet patterns of oceanic and atmospheric
circulation cause some regions, particularly in the Trpics and Subtropics, to experience drier
conditions accompanied by heat waves, drought and wildfires. A further outcome of higher
temperatures and atmospheric moisture content is an increase in the frequency and severity of
storm events. The resulting changes in seasonality, the availability of food and habitat,
biodiversity, nutrient cycling, stress, disease vectors and other factors will have increasingly
profound consequences for the composition, distribution and survival of biotic communities
around the world. According to the IPCC, global mean temperatures are expected to rise by 1.4
to 5.80C by 2100 (WHC 2006). This increase will result in more extreme seasonal heating and
cooling, altering the severity and periodicity of freeze/thaw and wet/dry cycles. This leads to
problems for buildings such as biochemical deterioration, damage due to water infiltration and
freezing, and frost damage.
Atmospheric moisture change threatens cultural heritage in a multitude of ways. It is associated

with increased humidity, rainfall and flooding; glacial lake outburst floods, changes in ground
water and water tables; and altered soil chemistry. Resultant problems include rising damp,
salinisation, erosion, subsidence, water logging, mold, ground heave, corrosion of metals, and
deterioration of materials due to relative humidity shock.
Subsurface archaeological remains are also increasingly affected by erosion, chemical alteration,
and the introduction of waterborne agents to previously desiccated or anaerobic environments.
Changes in the frequency, severity and timing of extreme weather events associated with GCC
will expose structures to potentially damaging wind and wind-driven salt, sand and rain. These
can erode surfaces, penetrate porous materials, and cause static and dynamic loading (WHC
2006). In a 2005 survey of World Heritage States Parties. The most frequently cited threat to
cultural properties was hurricanes, storms and lightning (WHC 2006).
Climate change is impacting on both natural heritages. Impacts include:
• Destruction of or damage to natural ecosystems, including loss or movement of animal and

plant species; which resulted in shortage resources for building and maintaining traditional
houses.
• Destruction of heritage sites, historic building mosques and holly shrines and damage to
historic palaces & monuments due to drying out structural materials and exposing them to
salt weathering and the spread of insects and other potentially damaging organisms.
• Destruction of landscapes, not only is there the potential to impair the settings and
constitutive values of significant places, but also losing traditional building materials. These
resulted in abandonment, demolition or unsympathetic alteration to traditional buildings.
• Damage to or destruction of sacred sites or the viability of traditional cultural practices,
disproportionately affecting indigenous peoples; this global environmental change prompt
new human adaptive strategies which conflicts with traditional practices, undermining the
viability of traditional life ways, sacrificing long-held knowledge of crafts, industries,
conservation methods, and much more along the way.
• Failure and loss of traditional agricultural practices; and
• Changes to the lives of individuals and communities resulting in disruption to or loss of
aspects of intangible cultural heritage, and potential displacement of entire communities.
Section 4
Identification of vulnerable sectors and undertaking vulnerability
assessment
4.1 The vulnerable sectors to climate change in Harari People Regional
state
All Ethiopia’s recurrent disaster in recent decades have been linked to the weather by for the
most important being drought induced famines.
Ethiopia’s climate is exceptionally complex due to its topography and its Geographical location.
The climate and seasonal pattern vary significantly from region to region. (CDPP, 1995)
Ethiopia, like many developing countries in Africa, depends almost entirely on rained agriculture
for its food production knowledge of the agricultural climate impact of the region can therefore
help us not only a just our way of living to the climatic realities, but also to produce more food. It
also helps us to monitor possible crop failures animal disease so that decision makers or
professionals can take timely measure to alleviate the situation and minimize its impact, thus
avoiding potential vulnerability to disasters.
4.1.1 Agriculture sector

4.1.1.1 Crop production
According to data obtained from Demographic & Socio economic profile of Harar, 2001 the
total area of the region 34050 out of the total area, cultivable land is estimated to be about14 753
hectares (43 percent); of which 11458 hectares are under the temporary crops and 3295 hectares
are under the permanent crops.(BOARD, Harari region 2010).
The main crops under irrigated areas include:
Stimulant crops “chat” and coffee, vegetables such as potato ,sweet potato ,tomato, garlic onion,
sweet hot paper and green red paper, fruit such as banana mango avocado and citrus as well
Within the sector, around 60% of the output comes from crop production in terms of area
coverage. Crops out of 14753 hectare sorghum, maze groundnut, wheat and horticulture with
stimulant crops ranks 40.4% , 14.6%, 18.6%, 3.8%, 22.3% Respectively, the remaining 0.3% of
the area coverage accounted to all other crops.
In most parts of Kebeles, crop cultivations is traditional and the predominant system of
production relies on rainfall and the production obtained therein remained very low. Initially,
cutting and burning of the natural vegetation, i.e. forest, bush and grass lands was the common
practice for fire wood and to bring more land in to cultivation. Now, the farmers have almost
established their holdings and are cultivating two or more crops on a single parcel of land using
the widely known cropping system, i.e., intercropping.
To prepare the farming land, a pair of draught oxen is used for performing the primary tillage.
The agricultural practices are oxen – cultivation based.
The cultivation is performed with traditional local plough and hand tools of low efficiency.
Finally, crop production is very sensitive to climate change with different effects. Absence or
failure of rain fall in cropping areas means shortage of food supply affecting the croppers
themselves, usually taking as its starting point the adequacy of rainfall for crop production.
However this alone cannot be relied upon a part from drought, there may be other causes of
depressed crop production, Such as excessive rain causing flooding and water logging in error,
occasionally hail storm damage and pest damage have been occurring in Sofi Dire Teyara
Hassange, Sukul parts
4.1.1.2 Live stock production

The livelihood of the farming communities also depends upon livestock production such as egg,
milk, meat, and blood livestock condition and therefore production rates is in turn dependant on
Environmental factors. Especially water and pasture availability, which are mainly determined
by rainfall.
So, below average rainfall, shortage of pasture and water will be occur etc. If this continues, the
rural economy will start to deteriorate. For example change livestock production and prices
which have impact on people that reduced food consumption and bring malnutrition.
The live stock population in Harari regional state is estimated to reach 40780 cattle, 5040 sheep,
41230 goats, 8330 ASS, 7190 camel, 36290 checker and 852, Beehives. (BOARD, 2001) for the
last five years (1997 – 2001 e.c) number of animals inseminated is 2794.
Regarding to Animal food supply, among the agricultural households who owned level stock
38.66% of Households are grazing land owned by individual holding and used for grazing
herbaceous forage crops and common bush and shrub land 34.85% of the house hold utilize
nearby fields while the remaining 20.49 use their back yard for feeding the level stock their own
(DSEPoHR, 2010)
It is known that, Animal are intrinsically dependent on the environment, and any fluctuation on
weather & climate can affect them through water and land use changes especially in low land
area. In addition to this number of 3 artificial inseminator’s production and productivity wouldn’t
expect to full fill the demand of milk meat egg etc. of the rural population.
4.1.2 Water sector

The problem of water sited amongst the top lists of the prominent social problem identified in the
region extreme climate changes made the water resource more venerable and water problem for
long time experienced the region for example. Due to climatic change some streams and springs
were dried while the volumes of existing small streams and river as well as the discharge rate of
springs have been decreasing from time to time.
It has been indicated that thus spring streams and rivers are highly affected by climatic change
because of uncertainty about rain fall patterns in the basin and high deforest attest, defecation
and environmental change.
- Water shortage is already a problem in many parts higher temperature lead to higher
evaporation level and higher water demand by human and animal more over the ranging
deforestation process causes fine soil pastrele carried into water resource apparent there
is a change in water demand both for human and animal the increasing demand in water
consumption can be attributed both to increase of temperature and wind speed
4.1.2.1 Ground Water

Because of the major occurrences of fresh massive granites and migmatites in the caver areas
and valleys around and in Harar town. The ground water potential is found to be very poor.
Thick Mesozoic sediments occur in the hills and mountains which are not favorable for storage
of potential ground water.
The sand stone unit, which posses good permeability and porosity cover only a limited area and
has very low thickness in the town and its vicinity.
The limestone, especially the lower one has high porosity and permeability due to the presence
of solution cavities. However, it has limited prospect for ground water due to its topographic
position as it occupies the slopes of Mt Hakim and also forms Giorgio hill.
4.1.3 Health sector

According to world health organization “Health is complete physical, social and mental well
being but not merely the absence of disease and infirmity.”By this definition it is easily
understandable that the concept of human health is broad. Behind this broader concept of human
health there are organizations for facilitating and safe guarding about human health .Harari
regional health bureau is an organization responsible for health and health aspect of people in the
region.
In the last ten years due to design and implementation of different health policies and strategies
that were resulted additional health institutions construction and increment of health professional
for the sector the potential health coverage increased. The health service coverage of the region
reached to 100% according to the federal ministry of standard even if the service quality,
accessibility, availability and service utilization rate is in a questionable manner.
There is also a burden in the health sector due to high morbidity and mortality in the society
which is related to different socio economic and cultural aspect of the community as well
environmental risk factors affecting health. So it needs maximum effort to insure and keep those
broader aspects of health to the people.
4.1.4 Education
All children have the fundamental right to education which should not be based on wealth,
gender, race, ethnicity or language. The UNESCO report 2010 highlights that girls are often the
first to feel the impacts of climate change. It cites the example of Pakistan and Uganda, where
climate – related shocks result in far more girls being taken out of school than boys. The report
indicates that cross – country research on past economic crises and climate events shows that the
effects of shocks on schooling tend to be more pronounced in low – income countries than
middle income countries. The report also finds that about 72 million children worldwide are still
out of school, as a result of countries’ slower economic growth and rising poverty which
increases marginalization in education often, the children of the poorest households are most
likely to suffer adverse consequences with regard to education, health and nutrition, poverty tend
to persist across generations and the same is true in our country.
The impacts of weather – related difficulties likely drought and famine – as particularly sever
and with long – term implications, especially regarding education. During times of weather –
related difficulties, families may withdraw their children from school, either due to lack of
finances or in order to mitigate in search of better living conditions or employment. Children are
also required to aid in house hold activities or to support their families by working and in most
cases, find it difficult to pursue an education.
In Harari region, schools which are found in rural weredas dropouts are increasing due to
economic crises caused by climate change. In 2010, 3015 students were put out of primary
schools. As the prevalence of poverty become higher families have to use child labor for
instance, in Sofi wereda most school age children are involving in smuggling baseness which
causes additional problem to the existing rises in the region. In this area children are used as
carrier of goods which enter in the region illegally from the neighboring countries.
Malnutrition was also almost universally cited as major issues affecting children as a result of
climate change. During times of difficulty the nutritional needs of children are not met, resulting
in malnutrition, fatigue, inability to perform in school, increased incidence of disease and
sometimes even death.
4.1.5 Building
Increased frequency and intensity of extreme rain fall, winds and lightning events are likely to
cause significant damage to buildings and urban facilities. Accelerated degradation of material,
structures and foundations of building and facilities may occur through increased ground
movement and changes in ground water. Increased temperature and solar radiation could reduce
the life of building and facility elements due to temperature expansion and materials break down
of concrete joints. Steel and asphalt This accelerated degradation of materials may reduce the life
expectancy of buildings, structure and facilities increasing the maintenance costs and leading to
potential structural failure during extreme events.
4.1.6 Biodiversity
Ethiopia is considered as one of the world hotspots in biodiversity. It is endowed with high crop
genetic biodiversity, 6,500-7000 vascular plant species, 860 avian species and 279 mammal
species with high endemicities. Unsustainable use of natural resource, over grazing and
conversion of natural habitat and poor management of protected lands are some of the most
important cases of losses in biodiversity in Ethiopia. With change in climate, it is highly likely
that loss of biodiversity will aggravated in the future..
The region was once famous for its variety and species of fruits. Fruit plants like mango and
Hangora was found in wild and are the most abundant fruit trees. Rare fruits like Ruman, Gishta
and washmala were indigenous trees to the region. Currently, the fruit plants are steadily
disappearing. It is hard to find for example, orange tree.
The precious trees like (wanza) cordial Africana and others are suffering, and it’s reaching to the
level of extinction. The carpenters in the town are encouraging the farmers which are no longer
beneficiaries from agricultural products because of climate change, in illegal logging and this is
causing a great loss in the natural balance.
Today this phenomenon reflected by the remnant vegetation, which is left in a very highly
degraded and scoffed nature on top of hills, depressions and farms. It seems that climate change
and heavy deforestation has caused the disappearance of the forest species in the region.
4.1.7 Energy
In people’s daily lives, energy provides essential services for cooking and heating food
production & storage education and health services, Industrial production and transportation.
Table 4.1 Estimated fuel wood consumptions 1999 E.C.
Population Fuel wood consumption (M3)

Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total
Harari 99,321 84,023 183,344 110,246 93,266 203,512
Total 99,321 84,023 183,344 110,246 93,266 203,512
All rural households in Harar use fire wood and charcoal for cooking. Depends on Biomass can
promote the removal of vegetation. The absence of efficient and affordable energy services can
also result in a number of other impacts including health impacts associated with the carrying of
fuel wood, indoor pollution and other hazards. Further challenges from urbanization, rising
energy demands and volatile oil prices further compound energy issues.
Almost all-rural and majority of urban households in Harari use firewood and charcoal for
cooking. Dependence on biomass can promote the removal of vegetation. The absence of
efficient and affordable energy services can also result in a number of other impacts including
health impacts associated with the carrying of fuel wood, indoor pollution and other hazards.
Further challenges from urbanization, rising energy demands and volatile oil prices further
compound energy issues.
The potential for increased frequency and intensity of extreme high-speed wind and lightning
events may cause significant damage to electricity transmission infrastructure and services.
Transmission lines and structures while extreme rainfall events may flood power substations.
These could potentially generate significant increases in the cost of power supply and
infrastructure maintenance from increased frequency and length of power blackouts and
disruption of services.
4.1.8 Archaeological and cultural resource
Harar is one of the oldest towns in the eastern Africa with two main parts. The old town of
Tegel encircled with the external well constructed around the 16th century and the town
outside the fence which has been developing since late 19th century. The Tegol will has
international value and is a place recognized by UNESCo the historical heritage in Tegol area are
deteriorating and the place is becoming less attractive due to poor sanitation which is
manifested in sewerage overflows open defecation and rampant solid waste disposed in many
spots which decrease the attraction of the site and expose the inhabitants for various disease. It
is very pity to notice the inadequacy Affection given for protection and conservation of this
precious historical item that is now found to seriously endangered.
4.1.9 Heritage and tourism
4.1.9.1 Heritage
The property and the area proposed as a “buffer area” are at the moment subject to constraints
linked to the environment; these are primarily due to pollution problems created by the poor
management of domestic and industrial refuse.
Solid refuse in Jugol
The urban landscape in the Old Town and outside the ramparts is littered with heaps of rubbish.
This state of affairs is partly due to the local authority’s poor management of refuse disposal and
partly to the inhabitants’ lack of discipline. In Jugol there are two institutionalized systems of
town cleansing. One is done by teams of donkey-drivers who collect the rubbish and the other by
technicians who sweep the streets and squares. Although these two systems are in action every
day, a number of areas in the town remain dirty: this is particularly the case of unpaved streets
which the teams cannot go up and down. Moreover, there are some areas in the town which
have become illegal rubbish-dumps and are never cleaned: this is especially the case for the
sheruga (small streets with open sewers) where people throw their rubbish. The refuse therefore
stagnates in some parts of the town, the tombs which are localized in the public space, suffer
particularly from this. Moreover, the introduction in the past few decades of plastic bags is in
evidence everywhere.
The refuse problems are serious; outside the ramparts, solid refuse contributes to the pollution of
the rivers; in Jugol, refuse is a feature of public space and the population is in contact with it.
Thus, the rubbish is the origin of a considerable number of illnesses and, at the same time,
contributes to the deterioration of public space by presenting an image of the town cluttered with
rubbish and spoilt by filth.
Waste water
The two main categories of waste water have to be differentiated: domestic water and the liquid
waste from industries in the town and from hospitals. Domestic waste water mainly comes from
bathing, washing clothes and dishes and other linked activities such as house work. The waste
water which comes from the town’s industries is more pernicious; it contains all sorts of
chemical products, detergents, acids and heavy oils which have very harmful effects on the skin
and the whole digestive tract. It is very difficult for the ground to absorb and filter this type of
waste water. The poor functioning of the drainage network and the total absence of treatment
has catastrophic repercussions on the environment and the population. The river which lies
below Badro Bari is the first one to be affected by liquid industrial waste. The streets of Jugol
suffer from a pollution caused by the poor evacuation of domestic water.
The whole principle of water drainage in Jugol seems to be based on the topographical and
geographical characteristics of the town. The town tends to use the design of the streets which
link the top of the town with the ramparts below. This system endeavors to evacuate liquid
waste through the low walls into the river-sewers which flow to the South and the North of the
town.
However, not all the waste water ends its course in these rivers because the system is ill-assorted
creating multiple breaks which act as pockets where water is retained within the town. An
observation of the global drainage network has enabled us to see a juxtaposition of solutions
which are sometimes contradictory; they do not permit drainage to take place continuously nor
can liquid waste be dealt with. At the present moment, no adequate solution has been found and
the local authorities seem to hesitate between pipes underground and a system of open gutters.
The observation of the streets in Harar demonstrates the role they play in dealing with domestic
waste water. They are the main carrier. Most of the time, water used for bathing, washing dishes,
or clothes, and for cooking is emptied directly into the street. The fact is that the slopes of the
streets in Harar form a “centrifugal drainage network”. The water is poured from the courtyard of
the house through a hole in the door giving onto the street. This method of drainage depends
entirely on the gradient, the design and the nature of the surface of the streets, with the whole
system creating a course of waste water similar to a system of “streams” and “tributaries” which
accumulate the liquid and solid refuse below the watershed toward the ramparts. The closer we
get to the ramparts, the greater the amount of waste water. This system entirely loses all
efficiency when the natural gradient no longer permits the water to run away or when the
network of streets gets greater or purely and simply, disappears, as is the case in certain areas in
the North near the ramparts. In these areas, we witness a considerable deterioration in public
space, soiled by the retention of waste water.
Observations of this type bring us to associate the state of the ground with the drainage of waste
water, in that the degree and the nature of deterioration in the surfaces may act as an aggravating
parameter.
The nature and quality of the ground in Jugol is very heterogeneous. The tarred surface of the
main roads which are accessible by car contrasts with a network of tiny streets of very sandy
soil; we also find a considerable number of streets covered with flagstones in a questionable
state. In all cases and whatever their nature, the quality of the surfaces plays a central role in
the quality of the drainage of the water, either creating large areas where the water is retained or
facilitating its drainage. Conversely, the accumulation of waste water or excessive streams of
water tends to accelerate the deterioration of the surface.
When the waste water has run off uninterruptedly, it is collected in one of the gutters outside the
ramparts. These peripheral gutters are used to transport the waste water from Jugol to Harari
authorities and in particular the population bureau of the city of Harar is currently completing a
population study for the year 2003. The figures are not yet available. We have access to those for
the year 1995, according to the study carried out by the Census Report for Harari Region in
1994.
Thus in 1995, 26 328 inhabitants were counted for Jugol and 76 378 inhabitants for the Harar
agglomeration. Forecasts were made for the year 2000—a figure of 34 326 inhabitants for Jugol
was put forth, thus an increase of approximately 13% in five years. Population increase is
foreseen for the decades to follow—the population estimate made in 1994 for the city of Harar in
2006 is that of 120 496 inhabitants.
The two rivers lying to the north and the south of the old town All the springs and rivers in
Harar are seriously polluted by the uncontrolled dumping of industrial and domestic refuse and
by human excrement. The Ginella River which traditionally represented the town’s primary
water reservoir and which is now used and polluted by a brewery, the Harar Brewery, no longer
has the slightest trace of dissolved oxygen today.
The dumping of industrial waste and waste water from Jugol in the rivers has, of course, had in
the first instance dramatic consequences on public health (water pollution is the primary cause of
infantile mortality), but it also threatens the survival of the immediate surroundings of Jugol.
Throughout history, this area has been the scene of rich traditional practices. Today, a
considerable proportion of the population who do not have access to the network of piped water
continue to take water from the river to wash themselves and their clothes in it, thus bearing
witness to the permanence of traditional practices which are compromised by pollution.
The urban landscape in the Old Town and outside the ramparts is littered with heaps of rubbish.
This state of affairs is partly due to the local authority’s poor management of refuse disposal and
partly to the inhabitants’ lack of discipline. In Jugol there are two institutionalized systems of
town cleansing. One is done by teams of donkey-drivers who collect the rubbish and the other by
technicians who sweep the streets and squares. Although these two systems are in action every
day, a number of areas in the town remain dirty: this is particularly the case of unpaved streets
which the teams cannot go up and down. Moreover, there are some areas in the town which
have become illegal rubbish-dumps and are never cleaned: this is especially the case for the
sheruga (small streets with open sewers) where people throw their rubbish. The refuse therefore
stagnates in some parts of the town, the tombs which are localized in the public space, suffer
particularly from this. Moreover, the introduction in the past few decades of plastic bags is in
evidence everywhere.
The refuse problems are serious; outside the ramparts, solid refuse contributes to the pollution of
the rivers; in Jugol, refuse is a feature of public space and the population is in contact with it.
Thus, the rubbish is the origin of a considerable number of illnesses and, at the same time,
contributes to the deterioration of public space by presenting an image of the town cluttered with
rubbish and spoilt by filth.
4.1.9.2 Tourism
Harar has enormous cultural and man-made tourist attractions. However, some of the resources
are being diminished because of various reasons. Some of these are:-
• Various tourist attraction sites have been damaged because of lack of conservation and
preservation.
• Human settlement, expansion of agriculture has contributed to the depletion and
elimination of flora and fauna with in some of the natural tourist resources areas.
• Illegal trade and looting of moveable objects/items of historical and cultural significance
Tourism and the environment
Available information indicates that tourism is a big and internationally growing industry. Many
countries around the world have already become beneficiaries of tourism industry. In relative
terms, many Africa countries are also benefit of from this sector. Although in Ethiopian the role
of tourism as an economic sector has---negligible in the past, its contribution to the economic
development of the country is ----recognized.
Like any other economic sector, tourism has also adverse environment impacts. These problems
emanate from the personal behavior of individual tourists, the level of care for tourist facilities as
well as the manner in which the tourism industry is managed overall. However, Since tourism in
Ethiopia is yet in its infancy, no serious environmental problem has been observed so far.
However, in some of the tourist centers problem of solid waste management, population increase
and other social problems have been observed. Taking its imminent ecological, social and
economic impacts into consideration, there is a need to design a strategy for the sustainable
development of tourism in the country.
Table 4.2 Annual Tourist Arrivals and its revenue to the region (1997-2001 E.C)
Table 8.1
No In the year Ethiopians Foreigners Total income in Birr
1 1997 11,349 4,500 7,036,767
2 1998 12,020 4,006 6,806,760
3 1999 22,212 6,957 12,199,446
4 2000 24,025 6,289 12,144,725
5 2001 24,572 5,302 12,407,974
Total 94,178 27,054 50,595,672
Source: - Regional culture Tourism and information Bureau.
Table 4.3 Lists of Hotels and their facility (1997-2001 E.C)
Table 8.2
No Urban Rural Year Name of Amounts
Hotel No. of No. of Address/Tel. No Remarks
Beds Room
1 Hakim 1997 Rewda 30 25 0256-66-59-65 3star
2 Hakim 1998 Tana 45 43 0256-66-84-83 Certificate
3 Jinela 1999 Plaza 55 26 0256-66-51-37 3 Star
4 “ 1940 Ras Hotel 64 47 025-666-00-27 3 Star
5 Hakim Abadir 52 40 025-666-20-30 3Star
6 Jinela Belayneh 32 22 025-666-30-20 3Star
Hotel
7 Shankor Tewodros 21 20 025-666-02-17 Certificate
Hotel
8 Aboker Wondimu 30 30 025-666-04-67 3Star
Hotel
Under Construction
1 Hakim Rewda No. 70 70 0256-66-59-65 -
2
2 Jinela Wondimu - - 025-666-04-67 -
No. 2
Source: - regional culture Tourism and information Bureau Harari region 2001.
Section 5
Adaptive capacities of the Harari communities and their environment
5.1 Adaptive capacity of Agriculture sector

In the past encouraging performance have been seen in crop production soil and water
conservation, irrigation, water development, heath, rural roads, transport and communication as
well as electrical energy sub sectors that have direct link with food security. Nevertheless, there
were certain capacity limitations in the areas indicated above to do more.
The external environment has been found conducive for food security and extension program
and support has been secured from government, NGO’s and the community.
Concerning the internal environment, there is luck of adequate professional manpower and
training needs are the gaps identified even though, there are a lot of constraints to be addressed in
the future the environment in the BoARD of Harari is conducive.
The regional state has allocated the necessary human, material and financial support from the
government, different sources as far as its capacity allows implementing the development
program.
To support the Agricultural sector the region, as of 2001, 51 development agents. At the vicinity
of kebele “(worda)” level in offices of ARD
In addition to this at regional level there are 125; male 69 female workers out of these 2 are
doctors 3 MSC 35 BSC, 14 BA and 40 diplomas the restate certificates who gives day today
services. (BoARD, 2002 EC
Concerning to Institutions
Table 5.1
No Instruction Quantity
1 Formers of raining institutions (FTC) 5
2 Agricultural development station 17
3 Nursery stations
3.1 Natural resource nursery station 4
3.2 Frut & vegetable nursery 2
3.3 Coffee nursery station 1
4 Veterinary heath posts 6
5 Veterinary clines 3
6 Poultry farming in Harar 1
7 Crop protection clines 1
8 Liquid nitrogen production center 1
Source:- Bacau & Agriculture & rural development , Harari region.
The general BoARD of Harari region responsible for the expansion of Agricultural development
& agriculture extension services given to farmers
The major annual crops of the region are sorghum maize, ground and wheat etc. Table- shows
the area of production and productivity for the period 1007 – 2003 e.c.
Total production rouged from a low amount of 37,629 quintals of cereals in 1997 e.c to high
amount of 202888 quintals’ in 2002/03 e.c. Similarity, crop productivity ranges from 3.9 or
/Hectare to 23 quintal per hectare in 2002/03 e.c. However, this does not mean that the food
security has been achieved and disaster prevented at house hold level, but rather indicates that it
is possible to raise crop production by using agricultural extension services and different
strategies programmes for each agro ecological zones of the regions.
Table 5.2 Annual Production and Productivity of Major Crops (1997-2003) E.C
Table 4.1.2
No. Types of crops 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Area Production. Yield Area Production. Yield Area Production. Yield Area Production. Yield Area Production. Yield
(ha) (Qt) Q/ha (ha) (Qt) Q/ha (ha) (Qt) Q/ha (ha) (Qt) Q/ha (ha) (Qt) Q/ha
1 Cereals 9729 37629 3.9 8395 124,800 14.8 8697 86710 10.0 7038 90651 12.9 7,038 130,900 18.6
Sorghum 6686 26343 3.9 5857 94,523 16 6069 63862 10.5 5713 69055 12.1 5713 92937 16.27
Maize 2426 8127 3.3 2334 27,777 11.9 2488 22127 8.9 1273 21132 16.6 1273 36139 28.39
Wheat 617 3159 5.1 204 2,200 2.2 140 721 1.8 37 364 9.8 37 1577 42.62
Barley _ __ _ 595 _ _ _ _ 15 121 8.1 15 247 16.47
2 Pulses _ _ _ 9 105 11.7 40 659 16.5 11.9 104 8.7 12 207 17.25
Haricot beans _ _ _ 9 105 11.7 40 659 16.5 11.9 101 8.5 12 207 17.25
Chick peas _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 3 _ - - -
3 Oil seeds 2397 14069 5.9 1700 17414 10.24 2230 19338 8.7 2453 22960 9.4 20,453 27,823 11.34
Ground nut 2397 14069 5.9 1700 16950 9.10 2230 18500 8.3 2453 22960 9.4 2453 27811 11.34
Sesame _ _ _ _ 464 _ _ 838 _ _ _ _ - 12 -

4 Vegetables _ 750 _ _ 1625 _ _ 2000 _ _ _ _ 50 10000 200
Tomato 750 _ 1625 _ 2000 _ _ _ _ 50 10000 200
5 Root crop 245 29700 121 260 33600 129.2 33000 _ 169 20600 121.9 235 35,250 150
Sweet potato 200 27000 135 200 30000 150 30000 _ 110 17000 154.5 200 30000 150
…Continued
Potato 45 2700 60 60 3600 60 55 3000 54.5 59 3600 61.0 35 5250 150

6 Fruit 555 40095 72.2 555 52043 93.8 555 52043 93.8 555 50473 90.9 - - -
Banana 30 4500 150 30 4500 150 _ 4500 _ 18.7 3200 171.1 19 - -
Guava _ 352 _ _ 300 _ _ 300 _ _ 300 _ - - -
Lemmon 25 1200 48 25 1200 48 25 1200 48 25 1200 48 26 - -

Mango 420 18000 42.8 420 30000 71.4 420 30000 71.4 420 30000 71.4 425 - -
Orange - 43 _ _ 43 _ _ 43 _ _ 43 _ - - -
Papaya 80 16000 200 80 16000 200 80 16000 200 80 16000 80 21 - -

7 Sugar cane 75 15000 200 75 15000 200 75 15000 200 72.5 15000 200 73 - -
8 Stimulant 3153.5 56978 18.0 3153.5 57795 18.3 3153.5 58614 18.6 3153.5 59174 18.8 3151 700 -
Chat 3081` 56478 18.3 3081 57295 18.6 3081 58114 18.9 3081 58674 19.0 3081 - -
Coffee 72.5 500 6.9 72.5 500 6.9 72.5 500 6.8 72.5 500 6.8 70 700 10
Source: bureau of agriculture & rural development, Harari Region.
Table 5.3 Annual Production and Productivity of Major Crops (1997-2003) E.C
No. Types of crops 2002 2003

Area Production. Yield Area Production. Yield
(ha) (Qt) Q/ha (ha) (Qt) Q/ha
1 Cereals 6152 80707 13 6962 134600 22.57
Sorghum 2073 36701 17.7 2154 51068 23.71
Maize 535 11164 20.8 566 17220 30.4
Wheat
Barley _ __ _ _
2 Pulses _ _ _
Haricot beans _ _ _
Chick peas _ _ _
3 Oil seeds
Ground nut 2449 32354 13 2743 33184 12
Sesame
4 Vegetables _ _
Tomato _
5 Root crop
Sweet potato 325 4875 325
Source: bureau of agriculture & rural development, Harari Region.
5.1.1Crop pest and disease
Crop pests’ economic importance in Ethiopia is desert locusts, qualea, army worms which are
classified as migratory pests. And grass hoppers, stock borers, storage pests and smut from non-
migratory groups.
MoARD studies indicate, that the annual average production loss due to pest attacks may in
average amounts to 40& of the country’s expected annual total production. Sometimes, there are
total localized crop losses in times of high eruption.
In the past five years Harari region, increased pest population growth and eruption at migratory
level which normally goes beyond the capacity of the farmers to control. Due to this it has been
supplied a lot of pesticide.
Table 5.4 The distribution of pesticides
Pesticide
Year
Powered (kg) Liquid (Lt) Granule (DOZ on)
1997 2235 2501 1050
1998 338 2056 240
1999 46.5 164 138
2000 60 25
2001 1233 7
Total Table 3912.6 3753 1428
Source: Bureau of Agriculture and rural development, Harari region
So, the impacts of these pesticides are very harmful for human being after improper application
on annual and perennial cash crops.
Until now no effective research or study on cultural, biological and natural pest control systems
and a growing tendency of chemical control than biological and natural control have been seen
and insignificant efforts for development and effective application of integrated pest control
achieved.
Table 5.5 Chart showing the incidence and severity of ground nut fungal disease in low
land peasant associations of Harari
In cadence of the disease

No PA Name Average % age Ha Qt
Average % age Ha
1 Awomer 25 45.3 20 9 90
2 Burka 25 185.3 20 37 370
3 Sofi 25 75 20 15 150
4 Harewe 27 49.3 20 9.9 99
5 Kile 27 66.5 20 13.3 133
6 Erer Dodota 27 22.5 20 4.5 45
7 Erer Hawaye 27 37.5 20 7.5 75
8 Erer Woldaya 27 62.5 20 12.5 125
Total 543.9 108.7 1087
Source: Early warning & response, Harari region 2010.
5.1.2 Ground nut fungal Disease
For the first time in the history of Harari the symptom of this fungal disease had been observed
in few low lands P.AS in 1991/92 cropping year (E.C). In 1992/93 cropping year the incidence
and severity of the ground nut disease become higher and reach E.T.H.L. in all ground nut
developing peasant associations.
3 years later after these disease appearances the disease diagnosis was carried out by Haramaya
University (HU) research department. This pathogen is known by the attack it caused to the root
system, the pods and underground stalk of the ground nut plant parts.
The hazard of this disease is very devastating and could cause more than 20% complete damage
and about 7% partial damage. Thus according to the Early warning data, Due to this disease
more than 20% ground nut yield lose phenomenon occurrence has been indicated every year
since 1992/93 cropping year (E.C)
So far there is no action taken against this disease. As everyone knows the ground nut is major
cash crop for the low land residents. More over it contributes for the welfare of the lively hood of
these people. According to Ethiopia Warning data, The ground nut covered land is 2827.3 ha
among which 108.7 ha is be came out of production every year due to this disease. Similarly due
to the intensified attack of this disease 1087 qt ground nut production has been lost every
cropping year. We can say that this was the most challenging problem for region and
communities which need a solution and further investigation (study).
The effect of weeds in crop yield is serious in Ethiopia condition where only 4.1% of the farmers
use herbicides and as the condition to Harari, (MoARD)
5.1.3 Weed control
The effect of weeds in crop in crop yield is serious in Ethiopia conditions where only 4.1% of the
formers use herbicide (MoARD). And as the condition to Harari
- Where most of the farmers give limited attention to weed control and less composes to
weed damages. Accordingly to MoARD a half hectare weed trial indicates that compared
to the un-weeded plots in average, it is possible to increase the potential yield by 39% &
44% by weeding, once and twice respectively. Weed eruptions can be disasters
particularly in condition of continuous rainfall Over the past years disastrous new /exotic
weed species have emerged to this region probably mixed with imparted relief foods or
seeds, such as perineum Hysterophorus ( Partinum).
- The infestation and distribution of this harm, full weeds in Harari is the following.
Table5.6 Distribution and invasion of parthenium weed in Harari region
Rural Peasant Association

Number Name of peasant association Area with parthenium weed
1 Awbekele 214
2 Waldiya 214
3 Ulanula 12.5
4 Hawayie 220
5 Harawie 68
6 Dodta 130
7 Awumer 99
8 Aboker Muti 10
9 Sigicha 15
10 Sofi 151
11 Miyay 90
12 Burka 346
13 Kilie 315
14 Gelmeshira 68
15 Hassen gie 2
16 Sukul 2
17 Direteyara 10
Sum 2400
Source: BOARD –EWR, Harari plant laboratory 2001.
Table 5.7 Extent of the city of Harar has been invaded by parthenium weed
No Name of kebele/city resident Area estimate with parthenium in hectare

1 08 30
2 09 37
3 10 16
4 11 85
5 12 95
6 13 81
7 14 50
8 15 42
9 16 25
10 17 32
11 18 100
12 19 102
Sum - 699
Natural damages caused by the parthenium weed.
A. Up on contact with the plant in human beings irritations of skin, swelling of skin and for
soaring results.
B. Exasperate asthma illness
C. As cattle animals have no choice than parthenium weed in colonized grazing areas to
graze, the milk of the cow becomes in its tests this is quality loss.
D. When seed of parthenium weed are mixed up on harvest with wheat, barley and backed
the test of food becomes bitter.
E. It is colonizing the whole grazing and caused forage shortages, exterminates native
forage grasses.
F. Causes Environmental pollutions ecological disturbances to both wild and domestic
animals.
So that adaptation that can help to reduce risks of these threats to nature and society firstly
parthenium control in less infested areas; aware population as to the danger of the weed and in
every event they see, they should up root the weed with its root. The best to weed is before it
flowers.
Make continues monitoring and survey in weekly basses on each peasant associations. Especially
after sowing is over make survey on farmers in a week and up root when you see the week.
Secondly, controls of weed in farm lands are:
Make deep plough so that this can buried seed of parthenium weed and plants able grow
before parthenium weed graw
Finally to aware people to take immediate actions, it is necessary to develop guidelines
manuals dispatching leaf lets and using regional mass media as well.
5.2 Adaptive capacity of health sector
5.2.1 Human health

Basically, the regional health bureau on the track to address those public health problems with
preventive activities and basic curative health services is also on the way to develop adoptive
capacity to the climate change impacts on the sector. Those preventive activities based on
disease prevention and health promotion were implemented under health extension program at
the community level for house hold health service provision. On the other hand the curative
health service is given in a decentralized way that insures to provide basic health service equally
to all .Accordingly there is one health extension worker for 500 households and one health center
for 25,000 people that basically answers for the health issues of the community health.
Additional there are governmental, nongovernmental, and private health institutions that give
additional support to the health sector.
Compared to the national adoptive capacity to climate change in the health sector our region is in
a better position with its above listed characteristic that implies 100(hundred) % health service
coverage. But due to the continuity of the climate change impacts it needs to be strengthened
improved as a whole.
5.2.2 Animal health

Live stock production is also practiced in the region although there are a large number of live
stock, the contribution to the region economy in general and to the house hold food security in
particular is very small mainly due to lack of sufficient health services, and improved forage and
pasture.
To enhance the role of live stock production in the mixed farming system, in the past five years
different vaccination has been used. Such as anthrax, black leg, postrolosis has been given to
37240, 16688 and 7608 animals respectively.
Also health service for external parasite, internal parasite and different treatment has been given
to 47455, 54108 and 76804 animals respectively. In addition to these 2794 cows has been cross
bred, using artificial insemination techniques up to 2001 budget year (BoARD, 2001) Harari
region. However, still there is there is a need to adopt human resource, materials and laboratory
sectors.
Veterinary services
The public veterinary service delivery in Harari regional state is generally not able to fully
address the needs of the poor live stock owners who partially base . Their livelihood on their
live stock.
The distribution and number of veterinary clines are not inadequate fully facilitated with
sufficient materials and equipments there is no laboratory facilitates. As a result several
infections or non infections disease are still endemic in the region and have economic
repercussions. Activities of the animal health service that have been under taken for the last five
years as follows.
Table 5.8 Animal Health Services Provided Since 1997 – 2001 E.C
Unit Number of Animals By Years

Activities
No 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
1 Vaccination 1,270 658 10,020 22,880 26,708
-Anthrax - - 4,660 11,880 9,700
-Black leg 1,270 658 5,060 9,700
-Postroloisis - - 300 7,308
2 Treatment 49,423 27,049 22,087 39,000 40,808
-External parasite 17,980 5,062 13,485 10,928
-Internal parasite 19,529 11,466 8,602 14,511
-Different treatment 11,914 10,521 - 39,000 15,369
3 Artificial 521 485 602 560 1,419
Inseminations
Source: Bureau of Agriculture & rural development, (Harari region)
5.3 Early warning system

Climate indicators and crop performance are usually the back bone of early warning
where crops are the main component of rural livelihoods for each agro ecological zone,
major food crops are identified and there performance is monitored over time. The
analysis of the food supply indicators monitored is conducted by area so that pockets of
deficit areas as well as surplus producing area could be identified.
However, crop assessment conducted in the region is based on unscientific methods. The
crop yield information generated is inconsistent and unreliable at all administrative
levels. Luck of skills in crop yield estimation techniques at all levels and shortage of kits
necessary for estimation are one of the constraints identified.
To minimize the impact of climate change or impact of disaster various intervention
measures have been taken with government agencies and NGOs by conducting early
warning studies.
In Harari region, out of 3 waredas (kebeles) two kebeles (waredas) i.e. eight sub kebeles
are said to be drought prone and were under relief in the past. Due attention has been
given by the Harari people regional state, BoARD with early warning and response sector
to safe the life of compatriots and all effort has been made to coordinate transportation,
storing and distribution of relief food and between 1998 - 2001 year, 18634 quintal of
Food Aid have been distributed for 11270 acute food in secured people
Due to consideration has been given, although not in full, to ensure the relief efforts
contribute to the mitigation the root causes of vulnerability to disaster.
Soil and water conservation activities, spring development micro basin, pond
construction and afforstation have been implemented by the coordination of kebeles. The
BoARD encourage, following, and mobilize resources to do different employment

Generation activities.
Also for the last 5 years 16136 chronic food in seared safty Net beneficiaries, the support
of FDREMoARD and regional food security sectors with the collaboration of WFP have
responded and implemented some basic and important soil and water conservation
activities by distribution Birr 15 million in cash and 21500 quintal in-kind.
5.4 Adaptive capacity of Education sector

Adaptive capacity is uneven across and within societies. There are individuals groups and sectors
within all, societies that have insufficient capacity to adapt to climate change, and high adaptive
capacity does not necessarily translate in to actions that reduce vulnerability.
In the case of education, many efforts are being made by the regional government to enhance the
level of education coverage in the region. In 2002 the total number of schools (primary and
secondary) was 53. By the end of 2008 the total number of school in the region increased to 67
out of which 23 primary schools are found in rural weredas (Harari Bureau of finance and
economic development).
The gross environment rate (GER) of the primary education in 2008 is 108.8 percent among
which (GER) of male is 108.6 percent and of female is 99.01 percent respectively.
Table: 5.9 Primary & Secondary Enrollment by cycle (1997- 2001) E.C
No Year Grade 1-4 Grade 5-8 Grade 9-10 Grade 11-12
M F T M F T M F T M F T
1 1997 9983 6066 16049 6383 5533 11916 2897 1813 4710 733 330 1067
2 1998 10748 7469 18217 7615 5984 13599 3915 1837 4752 744 351 1095
3 1999 12214 9598 21812 8046 6321 14367 3967 1760 5727 813 475 1288
4 2000 13005 11397 24402 8296 6245 14541 3486 2201 5687 702 455 1157
5 2001 12770 10679 23449 8496 7128 15624 3054 2055 5109 773 412 1235
Source: Regional Education Bureau, Harari region, 2001
5.5 Access to infrastructure
5.5.1 Road
Road is an essential infrastructure for the development of a given area. It eases mobilization of
recourses and communication and there by hasten the socio-economic development of a given
area. Thus road type net work, connectivity, accessibility and its organization with various
facilities and services have major impacts on its key role of development.
Road infrastructure had an old age in Harar town. However, its level of development is poor.
Information shows that the existing total road in the region 287.1 Kilometers of which 103.3
kilometers or 36 percent is urban road, consisting 8.7 percent asphalt, 12.9 percent gravel and
14.3 earth roads. The rural road, 125.1 kilometer long has a share of 43.6 percent, of which 8.7
percent gravel and 34.8 percent earth road. The high way road is 58.7 kilometers long has a share
of 20.4 percent.
5.5.2 Telecommunication
Telecommunication is the main and dominantly used electromagnetic means of
communication. Now a day’s various types of telephone services are expanding in the
region. These are digital telephone services, faxes, telegraphs, wireless and mobile
phones, internet services and play stations. Totally one zonal office and a telephone
stations are found in the town of the region.
Considering the spatial variation in the distribution and quality of services the highest
concentration and improved telephone services on the other hand, relatively low services
are observed in the remaining rural area of the region.
Table 5.10 Telecommunication and Number of Clients by Service (1997-2001)E.C
No. Service Number Of Clients
1 Total Telephone Clients 11,926

GOVT&NGO 48
Residential 3,272
Mobile 8,458
Wireless 97
Public phone 51
2 Internet 360
3 Fax 66
Total 12,352
Source: - Ethiopian Telecommunication Corporation, Harar Branch
5.5.3 Electricity
Electricity is the main, source of energy used in the modern world. Electric power is started as a
source of energy in Ethiopia immediately after Italian aggression at the beginning of 1940s
according to Ethiopian calendar. From the beginning, Ethiopian electric power is mainly the
hydro electric. The first power station in Ethiopia was Qoqa electric power station. Now a day
there are a lot of stations such as Malka Wakenna, Gilgel Gibe, Fincha, and the like.
Table 5.11 Number of Line length and transformer in Harari Region 2001 E.C
No. Line Length and 2001

transformer
1 Transformers 160
2 45/15 Kv 1
3 132/66/33Kv 2
4 66/15Kv 1
Source: Ethiopian, Electric & Power Corporation, Harar District
5.6 Institutional capacity

Most of human power in the Environmental protection authority and other sectoral Bureaus is
both inexperienced and have low in level of training in the environmental pollution control and
other related environmental management fields. Therefore it is indispensable to have a
comprehensive system of human power development and training that would prepare the
professionals to handle environmental issues.
Proposed Activities
The key issues that will be focused in the capacity needs assessment are:
Support the development of and access to appropriate training materials,

Offer training of trainers course,
Help existing institutions to become “center of excellence”,
Undertake short and long term trainings,
Familiarize with different technology utilization and update them with new invention.
5. 7 Adaptive capacity of micro-finance institution

Harar Micro Finance institution (HMFI) was established as a share company and obtained a
license from National Bank of Ethiopia (NBE) on August 17,2006. The major shareholder of the
institution is Harari People National State (HPNRS) with 96% shareholding. The remaining
3.4% share is distributed among Harari region women entrepreneurs association (0.1%),
Continental micro and small business development services consultant and facilitor (0.1%),
Harar chamber of commerce (0.06%), Harari women’s Association (0.05%), Almeshem yedoro
Ena Ensesat erbata (0.01%), Samti development association (0.01%) and an individual having
0.01%.
Vision of HMFI aspires to see its micro-financial services contributing substantial roles in the
prosperity of the Harari people in particular and people of Ethiopia in general.
According to the report of HMFI, the organization has disbursed a loan amount of birr
12,467,767 to 4010 clients as of march 2010 (Table 1). The amount of savings mobilized has
reached Birr 5,443,680 these are includes compulsory saving birr 2,139,450 and voluntary saving
birr 3,304,230.
Table. 5.12 Amount of loan disbursed (2006-March, 2010)

Number of beneficiaries Percent of
Loan product Loan (Birr)
Male Female Total Female
Group loan 276 2823 2099 86.85 6,006,000
MSE loan 937 422 1359 31.05 3,553,467
Business loan 90 64 154 41.56 1,138,500
Consumption 227 171 398 42.96 1,769,800
Total 1,530 2,480 4010 61.85 12,467,767
Source: Harar microfinance Institution
5.8 Adaptive capacity of tourism sector
5.8.1 Economic Contribution of Tourism to Harar
According to the report of Ethiopian Ministry of Culture & Tourism, about 4006
International tourists and 12,020 domestic tourists have visited Harar and region has generated
about 6,812,270 birr in the year 1998 E.C.
Because of the attention given to the tourism sector in Harari region, the tourism activity has
achieved about 53% growth during the periods from 1993 – 1997 E.C.
(Ministry of Culture & Tourism
In the region there are number of 6 three star, lower and certificated hotels besides, 3 tour and
travel agency to assist and serving the tourist in order to keeping their comforts according to
regional culture, tourism, and heritage bureau with in ongoing 5 years of strategic plan the
foreigner of tourists become ---% increasing. In this regard the bureau have to work in building
their institutions by giving attention to adapt and to generate economic benefit in incorporating in
the revitalization program.
5.3 Facts and Special Attractions of Harar as Tourist Destination
• Presence of Historical heritages

• Conductive atmosphere
• Hospitable people
• Special culture and of cultural houses
• Several churches & Mosques
• Narrow lanes in Jugel
• The Jugel Wall
• Hyena feeding Ceremony
• Rimbaud House & museums
• Traditional book binding activity
• Cultural market area
• Jewelries and basketry
• Cultural handicrafts and souvenirs
• Land feature, cultural villages & Agriculture
• Stone buildings
Source: Harari Tourism Office
Problems of tourism in Harar

• High price of hotel service
• Problem related with shortage of skilled receptionist in museums.
• Limited budget for tourism sector
• Absence of well organized institution responsible for registering and guiding tourists.
Opportunities for improvement
• Endowed with rich uncovered tourism resources

• Presence of health University in Harar
• Muslim related history
• Rich culture and tradition
• Harar is registered as world heritage
• Harar is a town of tolerance and peaceful coexistence
• Suitable climate
• Presence other tourist attractions in the neighboring towns
Threats of tourism in Harari

• Illegal villagization
• Soil erosion
• Immigration
• Limited land
• Absence of tourist class holes
• Irregular air fligh schedules
• Uncomfortable land transport
• Exodus of old (original) nationalities
• Expansion of HIV/AIDS
• Warning – The vicinity east and south of Harar is a known mine field area
5.9 Adaptive capacity of water sector

Even though Harar town is one of the ancient towns in the country present water supply facility
is poorly developed. In many cases water supply sources of the town were small springs situated
in the surrounding. As the population of town increase in time the spring were no more capable
of meeting the requirement as well as lake Alemaya is facing decline of its water due to climatic
change combined by the large irrigation water consumption by the nearby farmers resulted in
chronic shortage of water supply (According to the recent data water supply coverage of urban
and rural areas the region is 25 and 29.1 percent respectively) but now a day the regional
government has allocated 493 million Birr for the implementation of Harar water supply project
since the last two years which is expected to be finalized within the coming one year after
completion of this project the water supply of Harar town is expected to be almost 100%.
Most of the public fountains have steel tankers of capacity 15-20 m3. The steel tankers are
administered by youth and women association organized by kebele administration presently
HWSSA has town water trucks to fill the public fountain tankers and currently, HWSSA has
7179 connection or customers.
5.10 Adaptive capacity of the region for solid waste management.
The solid waste collection, transportation of disposal is the responsibility of the municipality of
the town which currently lack skilled manpower and not properly organized. There are also
around 53 containers (8m3 capacities). The number is said to be inadequate as well as the
frequency of collection of the filled containers is not regular & the town has only 3 waste
collection track so far statistics shows that around 59% of the total generated waste is collected.
The core problem is associated with lack of proper institutional set up and lack of capacity.
Assuming that 2000 people can use one container; the total number of container required is
around 85 that mean 32 additional waste containers are required to facilitate collection of waste.
Section 6
Identification and prioritization of response measures needed to enhance

regional capacity to climate change adaptation
Adaptation to environmental change is not a new conception Human societies have shown
throughout history a strong capacity for adapting to different climates and environmental
changes. For example, farmers, foresters, civil engineers, and their supporting institutions have
been forced to adapt to numerous challenges to overcome adversely or to remove important
impediments to sustained productivity.
Example of adaptation and coping strategies with current climate fluctuation include farmers
planting differ rent crops for different seasons, and wild life migrating to more suitable habitats
as the season changes.
Nevertheless, human society and the natural environment are not entirely protected against, nor
perfectly adapted to, current climate variability and extreme weather events.
Current economic losses from climate variations and extremes can be substantial. These losses
indicate that adaptation has not been sufficient to offset damages associated with current
variations in climate conditions (IPCC-2007).
Human induced climate change represents a new challenge, and may require adaptation
approaches to change that are potentially larger and faster than past experiences with recorded
natural climate variability.
Adaptation will be necessary to address impacts resulting from warning which is already
unavoidable due to past emissions (IPCC, 2007).
6.1 Addressing climate change impacts

Under Ethiopian condition where there is increasing un reliability of the rains, very low
productivity of Agricultural outputs, and in condition where there is a lowest per capital income
and with every few assets & limited alternative sources of income to act as a buffer in times of
climate change Hazards; crop failure and or depletion of live stock usually leads to disaster &
chronic food shortages.
During the past disaster prone periods and vulnerability of a population to a sudden fall in
agricultural production, in preventions have been mainly concentrated on temporary measures
and relief assistance mainly by international community and the donors. However in view of
continuous menace by climate change and inducing factors, under development of the country,
and luck of linkage between relief & sustainable development programme ; The past operation
time couldn’t generate concrete solution to tackle the hazards of climate change impact. So that
in order to address, the immediate need the National adaptive programme and key strategy to
combat the impacts of climate change have been devised and the following response measures
have been identified as appropriate intervention measures.
6.1.1 Agriculture
6.1.1.1 Crop production
The key areas of Response measures are:
• Maximization of production through utilization of irrigation potential, credit arraignment for

efficient utilization of inputs, controlling of crop pest with the minimum danger of pesticides
or carless handling and without a contamination of Air, soil water and Human being himself
etc.
Introducing of drought tolerant crop/varieties
To minize the risk of crop, introduce improved varieties which are early maturing and high
productive in this case the crop wouldn’t be exposed to a prolonged environmental calamities
and can escape a danger of drought.
Introduce moisture conservation Agronomic practice
Creating farm level irrigation facilities such as wells, left irrigation schemes and small farm
ponds to harvest the excess moisture.
Pond establishment before the rainy season for drinking & irrigation and using flood rivers for
crop production by collecting through furrows which leads water into the cropped field.
A tide – ridge technique, to collect surface run – off water.

Irrigated cropping is highly responsive for horticultural or cash crops. So that credit
facilities should have to be organized for inputs.
Improve the extension system and utilization of affertilizer & improved seed.
Controlling crop pest infestations
Application of biological, natural and cultural control methods and on integrated pest control
measure as an alternative to chemical control and chemical control has to be accepted as the last
alternative after exploiting all of the other possibilities.
Compost making – Compost supplies wide variety of plant nutrient. It also create a
favorable Environment for soil microorganisms.
Improved agricultural productivity through modern agricultural technology and input
6.1.1.2 Livestock farming

The impact of climate change on the livestock sector should have to be timely addressed and
intervened in order to minimize the possibility of large scale hazards and vulnerability.
So the appropriate measure to be addressed for increasing production & productivity.
Promotion of fodder production

Introducing nutritious and drought tolerant fodder species and cultivating drought – free
pocket areas under fodder crops.
Cut – and – carry keeping animals on a shed or paddock and bring fodder to them – rather
than allowing them to graze outside this is appropriate measure specially a region like
Harari which have been practicing in Hararge areas.
It is useful for high – value live stock such as dairy cattle and goats, fatting animal, and
young animals rose for slaughter.
• Improvement of live stock has been carried out with the capacity building program of cross
breeder or artificial inseminators and the sector of this veterinary laboratory have to be
practical.
• Provide long term & short term training focus on Environmental climate change and
agricultural skill training.
• Improving market oriented varieties and facilitate the establishment of market center in
Harar.
As far as food supply monitoring become a key factor. The gaps of assessment
(measurement) of food security monitoring and evaluation skill have to be capacitated
by intensive training.
Finally, strengthening drought and flood early warning system very essential for Harari
region.
6.1.2 Human health

As climate change has become a certainty, so has the need for public health action to anticipate,
manage, and ameliorate the health burdens it will impose. So the following public health actions
are recommended to address climate change based on essential public health services. These are
1. Monitor health status to identify and solve community health problems. Like that of Tracking
diseases and trends related to climate change.
2. Diagnose and investigate health problems and health hazards in the community which is
related to investigation of infectious water-, food-, and vector-borne disease outbreaks
3. Inform, educate, and empower people about health issues by informing the public and
policymakers about health impacts of climate change
4. Mobilize community partnerships and action to identify and solve health problems. Public
health partnerships with industry, other professional groups, faith community, and others, to
craft and implement solutions
5. Develop policies and plans that support individual and community health efforts that are
related to plan and build houses which are suitable with the climate change.
6. Enforce laws and regulations that protect health and ensure safety. (Little role for public
health)
7. Link people to needed personal health services and ensure the provision of health care when
otherwise unavailable. Health care service provision following disasters
8. Ensure competent public and personal health care workforce. Training of health care providers
on health aspects of climate change
9. Evaluate effectiveness, accessibility, and quality of personal and population-based health
services. Program assessment of preparedness efforts such as heat-wave plans
10. Research for new insights and innovative solutions to health problems. Research on health
effects of climate change, including innovative techniques such as modeling, and research on
optimal adaptation strategies for public health
6.1.3 Water supply

The water supply, situation of Harari region both Harar town and rural areas so meager that the
issue frequently surface in the local media. Households of rural area largely depend on
unprotected measure source such as rivers springs and traditional wells for their water need for
use and consumption as a result. Apart from the vulnerability to water born disease women and
children are forced to travel long distance to fetch water. There is a need to involve in activities
that increase water availability of the rural poor to shortage of water through implementing the
following:
• Develop and improve water such as ground water and surface water.
• Improve human health.
• Maximize use existing water structure (chemical analysis bacterial analysis filtration
6.1.4 Solid waste
There should be proper treatment and final disposal site of the solid waste collected.
(Land fill treatment and disposal)
Strict control mechanism & stringent follow up of the solid waste collection and disposal
process including supervision of the collection crews has to be practiced.
The handling and separation of solid waste at source before they are collected is critical
step-in management of solid waste and this practice has to be encouraged and motivate.
6.1.5 Natural resource management

This document identified various strategies that would help the community (the environment)
become more resilient to the climate change that has already occurred and these that will occur in
the future soil and water conservation Achieved through strategies such as terrace farming is
suggested as solution for loss of agricultural productivity due to climate change, soil degradation
and deforestation. Additionally the following appropriate interventions are recommended as
coping strategies to help mitigate the negative environmental effects community currently
experiencing.
• Enrich the sparsely stocked vegetation cover through reforestation and area closure for
natural regeneration.
• Introduce and promote alternative energy sources that can reduce the consumption of fuel
wood,
• Create alternative income source for those whose livelihood largely depend on fuel wood
and charcoal selling;
• Catchment treatment through land management moisture and soil conservation and flood
control methods;
• Implement soil and water conservation programs and projects that promote local community
participations;
• Implementation of planting multipurpose trees at household level in areas where water is
available from irrigation structures;
• Create awareness on the healthy co-existence of the communities and the natural resource
base of the area.
Table 6.1 Current potential options for adapting to climate change for vulnerable
sectors
Food, fibro and Water resources Human health Industry,

forestry settlement and
society
Drying Crops: development of Leak reduction Grain storage Improve
drought new drought-resistant water demand and provision of adaption
varieties; intercropping; management emergency capacities,
crop residue retention; through metering feeding stations especially for
weed management; and pricing Soil Provision of safe livelihood.
irrigation and moisture drinking water Incorporate
hydroponic farming; conservation and sanitation climate change
water harvesting Conservation of Strengthening of in development
Livestock: groundwater public programmes
supplementary feeding; through artificial institutions and Improved water
change in stocking rate; recharge health systems supply systems
altered grazing and Education for Access to and co-

rotation of pasture sustainable water international ordination
Social: Improved use. food markets. between
extension services; debt jurisdictions.
relief; diversification of
income
Increased Crops: Polders and Enhanced Strural and non- Improved flood
rainfall/Fl improved drainage; implementation of structural protection
ooding development and protection measures; infrastructure.
promotion of alternative measures disaster “Flood-proof”
crops; adjustment of including flood preparedness buildings
plantation and forecasting and planning; Change land use
harvesting schedule; warning, effective post- in high-risk
floating agricultural regulation through event emergency areas.
systems planning relief Managed
Social: Improved legislation realignment and
extension services “Making Space
for Water”
Flood hazard
mapping; flood
warnings.
Empower
community
institutions
Warming Crops: Development of Water demand International Assistance
/Heat new heat-resistant management surveillance programmes for
waves varieties; altered timing through metering systems for especially
of cropping activities; and pricing disease vulnerable
pest control and Education for emergence groups
surveillance of crops sustainable water Strengthening of Improve
Livestock: Housing and use. public adaptive
shade provision; change institutions and capacities
to heat-tolerant breeds health systems Technological
Forestry: Fire National and change.
management through regional heat
altered stand layout, warning systems
landscape planning, Measures to
dead timber salvaging reduce urban
clearing undergrowth. heat island
Insect control through effects through
prescribed burning non- creating green
chemical pest control spaces Adjusting
Social: Diversification clothing and
of income activity levels;
increasing fluid
intake
6.1.6 Heritage, culture and tourism
Utilization of Rain Water—fountain houses and public buildings
At the present time, the retrieval and use of rainwater remains marginal in Jugol and is limited to
filling several cans or barrels when it rains. No method for collecting or storing it ,has been noted
at the household level or on an urban level. This shortcoming can be partially explained, of
course, by the lack of traditional practice in a city where water has been banned and kept outside
the urban space (ge), in areas devoted to gardens, agriculture and nature (ge fage).
Nevertheless the annual pluviometry, the existence of cisterns in certain houses, the
concentration of public buildings on high ground in Jugol, make possible foreseeing a global
project for gathering rainwater.
Using “Fountain Houses” as a Source for Drinking Water
Certain house owners in Jugol are already used to storing a large quantity of water, that which
the official network distributes. It is then sold to part of the population, that which isn’t equipped
with a connection to the network or that which simply lacks a reservoir enabling the owners to
withstand “dry” periods.
It hasn’t been possible to note fully the exact number of such fountain houses in Jugol.
Nevertheless, of about twenty houses examined, eight owned concrete reservoirs of about 9m3 in
their courtyards. This relatively important proportion, along with observations made concerning
practices tied to water gathering and transportation, lead to believe that it’s a widespread
phenomenon in the old city. It would be interesting to make use of this information and take as
models those practices that already exist for the starting point of a new system of water
distribution. In this instance it would be necessary for these fountain houses to gather, use and
distribute rainwater, and to transform part of it into drinking water. With this in mind all the
roofs of the house should be connected to a reservoir that could gather 9m3 of untreated water.
During periods of heavy rain (June, July, August, September) the reservoir overflow should run
into a filtering basin. Water thus recuperated would be used for drinking. The two tables below
show the number of liters recuperated each month for the house and its utilization.
Use of Public Buildings
In Jugol, public buildings have the advantage of all being located in the highest part of the city.
Their position on the watershed of the old city makes them a starting point for a future
distribution by gravity. But it is an especially large roof surface area that would allow
recuperating a great quantity of rainwater, treating it and storing it in strategic places in the city.
Liquid Waste or the Need for a Global Management that Takes into Account Jugol’s
Immediate Environment
The new project for supplying water—which in the end would bring five times more water to
Jugol—poses the problem of managing liquid waste in a drastic way. If the city hasn’t resolved
the problem of wastewater before massive quantities of water are introduced, present problems
will be accentuated dramatically.
Jointly Managing Wastewater and Ground-Surfacing
The municipality carried out an experiment in kebele 02 and 03—installing a network of small
central stone gutters. This would be an option to seize upon and generalize within and
throughout Jugol. As proof, just count the advantages the gutters represent:
They identify and thus offer better cleaning of dirty zones
They are easily maintained1
They encourage the active participation of the inhabitants, who are in charge of
cleaning the section adjoining their houses
They don’t necessitate an additional connection between the house and the network
They allow for ground surfacing to be carried out simultaneously—factor that an
underground network doesn’t take into account
Their installation can be carried out progressively in successive phases
Their installation makes use of local techniques and materials
They are competitive price-wise2
The inhabitants quickly adopted3 the system which proves its clarity, simplicity,
appropriateness to their habits.4
The solution offered by open-air central gutters taking into account topography, natural slopes,
local materials and savoir-faire, offers we feel a significant coherence within a technical solution,
the nature of the urban landscape, and traditional habits. By making use of all the characteristics
peculiar and unique to the city, the central gutters in stone take on a legitimacy that is at once
technical, urban, and architectural.
Integrating Rivers within a Preservation Policy for “Harar World Heritage”
The close outskirts of Jugol, and above all their springs and rivers, are an integral part of the
population’s inhabited space just as much as the streets, houses and mosques located inside the
ramparts. These spaces are evidence—still very much alive—of a city that wove close and vital
ties as an integral part of its environment. As such, and in the name of sanitary and ecological
urgency, future preservation and development policies cannot overlook a situation that
encompasses the springs and rivers that tightly surround the old city.
Saving these areas is above all stipulating that the problem of the wastewater management isn’t
settled just because they are to be found outside the ramparts. The city will not for much longer
be able to budget their competent gathering and treatment one way or another.
The generalization of gutters on the periphery of the city and their regular maintenance would
enable avoiding use of the North River—nowadays used as a gutter—on one hand, and, on
another, thanks to the topography, channeling together all liquid waste thus recuperated towards
a point to the East of Jugol, near Suqutat Bari. Once concentrated in one area the polluted waters
would be channeled through a brook that runs into the South River. This brook could be used as
a large filtering basin, the natural linear form of which would enable progressive treatment of
water up until it flows into the river. In this way, water flowing into the river would be cleared of
pollution and could be used to irrigate nearby fields.
The “parasitic” connections of gutters on the periphery and South River by the intermediary of
brooks would no longer need to exist and would be cut off.5
Propositions for Adequate Handling of Rubbish
Presently, there are two ways of cleaning rubbish within the city.
The first is a daily collecting of garbage assured by a team of 8 men and 5 donkeys, in each
kebele of the city—rubbish that the inhabitants leave on the street corners. They are then emptied
into containers located outside the walls, near the gates of the old city. Quite often the weight of
the sacks is such that the donkey-drivers are unable to empty then in the containers.
Consequently they empty a good part of their loads in the gudjufa6 or else in the rivers near the
walls.
The second is the cleaning of the public domain that is assured by about ten teams of 3 women
who each morning clean the main streets of the old city as well as the market places by filling
wheelbarrows with trash. The wheelbarrows are then emptied by hand into the containers outside
the walls.
The containers are routed about two times a week to the Hakim Gara dump, located 4 kilometers
from town, on the mountain of the same name, near the television station.
This system of handling municipal trash is faulty insofar as, upon close examination, it is
estimated that nearly half the dry or hard rubbish coming from the old city is not collected by the
public service let alone being carried to the municipal dump, but stagnates inside Jugol or outside
the ramparts. Several reason explain why:
- Donkey-drivers don’t always pass on a regular basis—rubbish set out by the inhabitants
awaiting collection is not picked up.
- The bad condition of certain streets prevents either donkey-drivers or sanitary technicians
from using them.
- The sanitary team has a tendency to dump rubbish from the old city into the rivers or
gudjufa, contributing to the creation of unauthorized haphazard dumps several meters
from the ramparts.
The consequences of these weak points are aggravated by the fact that certain inhabitants employ
private personnel to get rid of their trash in these unauthorized dumps. Furthermore a number of
the inhabitants—who don’t have the financial means to pay personnel to dispose of their trash—
throw it back into public areas.
According to studies it turns out that the current system being used doesn’t correspond to the
pace of trash accumulation and that it is moreover not adapted to the local habits of disposal. In
order to make it so, it would suffice to make better use of and introduce more donkeys, increase
the number of trash collectors and to review their equipment in order to intervene in a more
efficient way in the center of the city. We thus recommend doubling all the teams and redefining
their workdays. In this way each kebele should be cleaned at least two times a week. Adding
mobile containers (on wheels)—the size of about 3 cubic meters—in different key positions in
the city that are easily accessible for donkey-drivers, cleaning squad, and inhabitants, would also
help alleviate the unauthorized dispersal of trash. These mobile containers would be taken each
day outside the walls and emptied into permanent containers, to which could be added an access
ramp to facilitate the emptying of trash.
Such an improvement in the way rubbish is handled would be all the more operative on a
municipal level if it were to be complemented by a program for the protection of waterways
“forbidding” the systematic emptying of waste water into the rivers. To carry this out it would
be necessary to heighten public awareness about environmental and health problems since for a
number of the city’s inhabitants, the relationship between environment and health isn’t apparent.
Population forecasts for the decades to come foresee very high urban growth. Along with this,
the quantity of trash will increase and accentuate existing problems. In this perspective it is
imperative to integrate rubbish within a productive and economical cycle—indeed, foreseeing its
recycling and re-use.
Among measures to be undertaken should be cited the creation of a center for sorting rubbish
that could improve the production of compost, which in turn could be sold to farmers, a public
always looking for this traditional fertilizer.
The region should have a policy on tourism that is based on revitalizing cultural heritage and
help promote employment, and should work with natives in Diaspora to invest in their native
area at the same time, encourage interaction from public sector. Of course, this should
obviously be led by well prepared a strategic of master plan, which is visionary, well – netted
network, following modus operandi and governmental support in a given spatial economy,
the importance of leadership should be envisaged. This is designed to arm the performer with
organizing capacity for effective managing for a given programme, project and/or event.
The residents should also participate in awareness creation of the fundamental tourism
concept and its advantage. They also have to be aware of visitors’ need and aspiration of a
better hospitality.
There should be responsible and autonomous organization with strong portfolio and high
caliber professional capacity that is capable to plan, implement and evaluate all activities of
tourism. It should be backed with holistic support especially by the municipality. This
enhances tourism activities through marketing, build image, and prepare tourism information
such as; signpost management, brochures, guide-map, guidebook, control standard of hotels
and restaurant that are frequented by tourists.
There should also be guidelines, rules and regulations, to be abided by all tourist individuals
and institutions. It is essential to educate tour operators, guides, hotel and restaurant owners,
waiters, receptionists and related employees; taxi drivers, museum curators, souvenir shop
owners in order to help and facilitate their activity, and acquire management skill to improve
there services as well as their products to reap the fruits of tourism.
Above all, the aborigines should gain the necessary attention to be rehabilitated in their
homeland. Their heritage and culture should be preserved and conserved. To materialize this:
• Population policy should be designed that fits and help the indigenous people from the threat
being endangered
• Cultural heritage areas should be conserved
• Their culture, language, songs, values, norms and rituals should be respected and revived
• Their traditional costumes and organizations should be maintained
• All the threats, such as rapid reduction of their number, out flow, HIV/AIDS should be
meticulously designed to combat so as to maintain their population.
Apart from this, cultural heritage sites should be kept clean to attract visitors pleasantly.
To do this:
• Projects that are in the pipeline like sewerage and road construction and maintenance should
gain especial emphasis and execute in time as planned
• Kebele houses in Jugel are the heritages by themselves. Therefore, they either should gain the
necessary considerations to return to the previous owners before expropriation by the then
government or should be transferred to the legitimate public organization in order to have the
necessary follow up and maintenance and administration, since they are cause o congestion
and in the Jugel area.
• Unemployment condition, which enhances poverty prevalence in the cultural heritage area, is
rampant. Panhandlers are until they are hinder ring the movement of tourists as if poverty
threatens the development of Harar. Therefore, to improve the situation a programme has to
be carried on intervening through housing as to meet the backlog, vocational training through
social innovation, avail credit scheme, and finally employment creation.
• To ease overpopulated area, especially where the area should be improved before further
deterioration and totally abandoned, because of slum formation. Those who want to get out
of the area gain proper attention in their rehabilitated area as a compensation for their
displacement.
• Moreover, since there are other tourist products in the surrounding regions, the cooperation
that had already been started among these regions should gain impetus to achieve further
cooperation in the field of tourism to create innovative milieu for their mutual benefit.
• The creation of illusionary mine fields, and unsecured situation as it has been told for
tourists. This condition intended to terrorize and discourage tourists from reaching their
destination Harar in addition, the heritage authority waits intentionally until the cave paints
spoiled and washed away its importance.
After improving the sanitation problems and maintaining the proper image, then there should be
emphatically, strive to market Harar as a city of its products together with tourism cluster. In
order to realize this:
• To utilize the opportunity and promises or the consensus reached with the two European
sisterly cities.
• To initiate participation among the government, business and investors in construction of
modern hotels, restaurants, exhibition halls and conference centers.
• To create events, favorite to it’s the Diaspora, using like traditional annual tracking known as
ziarane. This has two fold effects, on one hand by creating products we have extra source of
fund and on the other hand, this event mobilizes large number of natives living abroad in
different parts of the world, which enables further marketing of Harar.
• Ethiopia should focus on the Middle East to market Harar and its surroundings because they
might have the affinity towards Muslim culture.
• To promote and improve the marketing in the city so as to make it efficient and effective
through creating web site using cyberspace.
Section 7
Portfolio of good practices and technologies required for implementation of

the identified response measures
It is known that, a best practice demonstrate appositive & tangible impact on the living
conditions, quality of life or environmental of individuals, groups or communities concerned.
And contribute to sustained eradication of poverty and minimize food insecurity (MOARD, best
practice, 2002). So the impact of climate change disaster on both crop & livestock sector should
have to be timely addressed in order to minimize the possibility of large scale vulnerability and
factors that limit the sustainable development based on finding of the above identified response
measures, this portfolio of good practice and technologies required are as follows.
Table 7.1 Portfolio of good practices and technologies
Sectors Best Practice (Technologies

Agriculture sector Crop production - Managing soil fertility by organic fertilizer
(compost) when added to the soil, it improves or
sustain soil fertility, soil texture and structure,
and increase its water holding capacity.
- Promoting T-manure in large scale.
- Provision of improved variety of seed (Disease

and drought resistance).
- Drip irrigation practice.
- kogna village traditional irrigation practice.
- Provision of area enclosure and with different
structure on targeted watershed area.
- Promoting integrated pest management.
Multipurpose of tree planting.
Livestock - Livestock feed supplementation and fatting.
- Introducing of adaptive and productive breed.
- Bee keeping.
- Forage development.
water Water harvesting structures
• Roof water harvesting
Water storage structures
Energy Fuel saving stoves

Ethanol stoves
Wind mills
Health sector Strengthening health extension workers
Midwifes
Strengthening Indigenous knowledge on human
medicine
Establishing public health emergency and
preparedness
Case team at regional level
Inter-sectoral coordination for emergency case and
regular disease prevention and health promotion
activities
Nutrition Diversification of food source
Introducing nutrition packages on extension
program
Education School feeding
Institutional Capacity Establishing a functional Early warning System

building that also integrates traditional conventional and
timely response
Introducing and extend modern information
technology (GPS, mobile phone, wireless data
processing, sat phones…)
Strengthening market and information system
Strengthen financial institutions (microfinance,
credit and saving)
Household asset building and protection from

hazards
Strengthening linkage among different
development programs/actors (government and
NGO) plus enhance learning and experience
sharing.
Natural resources Soil and water conservation
management Introduction of Mud bricks for housing
Infrastructure Incorporate climate hazards in the design of
infrastructure (bridge, enduring electric and
telecommunication poles)
Strengthening maintenance capacity of
infrastructure (availing machinery and personnel)
Flood protection Construction of physical structures like terracing,
gabion, canal construction
Biological conservation methods
Improving vegetation cover Afforestation,
Strengthening community response measures
Solid waste - 3R approach which have economic

management incentive
Section 8
Impact assessment of response measures in order to address possible mal-

adaptations
The rural people of the region have long and accumulated body of knowledge, know – how
practices and symbolic representations about their environment. In the high and areas, local
coping strategies include traditional practice in the area of soil and water conservation, changing
in cropping and planting practices indigenous agro forestry, diversification of income and
livelihood sources through petty commodity production and trading, inter house hold transfers
and loans, mortgaging of land, food appeal laud, and seasonal migration however, the capacity of
most of the traditional house hold and community coping strategies are too weak or limited to
help them adequately cope with the impact of climate change.
On the other hand, some coping strategies based on short term survival. Considerations (such as
cultivation of unsuitable areas, charcoal making and fuel-wood selling) are not only
unsustainable but would also cause further degradation and worsen local resilience.
The back bone of Ethiopian economy is subsistant and rain feed agriculture. 85%of the
population is engaged in farming. Compounding the problem, drought which lead to food
shortage dictates our lives. According to the recent human development resoure, incidence of
poverty is considered to be one of the highest in the world with 55% of the population below
the poverty line. Climate change makes this situation more serious.
In the Harari National regional state, vulnerable households and affected communities employ
arrange of measure to cope with the impact of climate variability and climate change induced
disasters.
The most commonly practiced house hold and community measures in the area of resource
management include construction of terrace, Gully control area closer, micro basin and water
harvesting etc.
In addition, vulnerable communities employ practiced social strategies to cope with climate
change –induced disasters. Fire wood and charcoal selling, pity trading people can change their
consumption patterns to avoid a major decline in total food consumption, reduce house hold
consumption, stocking in good years to sell in bad years, and waged searching of labour without
his family, income from pity commodity production. On this local strategies to cope with hazards
appropriate for long term adaptation.
Some strategies that rely on short term consideration can worsen environmental degradation and
there by diminish future adaptive capacity and livelihood options. For example, traditional
coping strategies such as charcoal and five wood selling lead to massive deforestation, this
strategy obsolete in the long run, and leading to intensification of climate change impacts.
8.1 Emergency Interventions

The ability of households to cope with risk is sometimes called their resilience. If the households
cannot cope they are vulnerable to acute food security. So in Harari region for acute situations
relief interventions in the form transfer food, and to those chronic food in secured households
asset building can be supported through house hold asset building program and softener
programme which can be distributed in cash and in kind transfer. However, particularly except
HABP others due to in appropriate public work and targeting Errer may affect the long run
sustainable development of farming community and may even create dependency syndrome.
In addition, Errors of exclusion: A targeting that excludes some intended beneficiaries of the
food aid and Errors of inclusion: A targeting error that includes some people who are not among
the intended victims of food aid in some cases, contributed to the less inadequacy and
ineffectiveness of such interventions.
As we have mentioned in the above statement besides, unnecessary relief program should
farmers not undermine traditional survival strategies. One of the key mechanism for fighting
dependency is the promotion of traditional, survival strategies.
8.2 Development Interventions

One of the key grease of intervention is: Intensify extension system which are oriented to
drought prone areas or conditions: in other words drought oriented research & technology
development & dissemination.
There are alternative ways of making sure that people do not starve, without restoring to relief
food assistance. For example, if the community is suffering from chronic food insecurity, it
means that they are often at risk from hunger, in these circumstance giving relief food assistance
ever year to such people is not aright response. Instead there is Alternative policy responses like
risk reduction policy, which is development oriented policy aimed at reducing the root cause of
vulnerability to disaster for example, it is possible to promote water harvesting, irrigation, e t c
so that farmers are less prone to variable rain fall. Currently there are a number of constraints for
planning implementing climate change adaptation. These constraints include:
• In sufficient infrastructure and facilities including institutional strengthen

• In adequacy of skilled manpower on climate change issue, in adequate facilities with
inadequate research, so adequate knowledge and information has to be generated to
develop adaptation polices for the region. So that this well enables to plan implement
adaptation to climate change in the region as well as develop capacity that enables to
conduct research, promote documentation and information on climate change.
Section 9
Suggested adaptation measures and strategies

• Develop irrigation and water harvesting scheme: In Harari region, water stress, back
word agricultural practice and eradical behavioral change of farmers are major challenges
for the development and expansion of alternative livelihood and income source including
crop cultivations improve land husbandry and ecological restoration. Thus, development of
small scale irrigation and water harvesting schemes, such as pond establishment before the
rainy season, collecting flood reveres through furrow and building of local capacity for
drip and small scale irrigation planning and development should be given immediate
attention and high priority.
• Conserving soil and water strategy: Many slopes on catchment area are steep, and the soil
is easily eroded specially low land area like errer catchment (water shed area). Harmful
farming practices that encourage erosion also reduce the availability of moisture in the soil,
farmers are forced by the shortage of land to cultivate slopes that should ideally be kept
under protected by a permanent cover of vegetation. So that adaption measure such as Gully
control, Area in closure, level and graded bands, micro basin and plantation etc. Have to be
predicted in order to conserve soil and water resource of the region.
• Drought and disease to tolerant crops with through increased investment in tree
planting: Climate change is lively to continue to bring new weather patterns that farmers are
unfamiliar with. Increasing forest cover, promoting drought disease tolerant and productive
crops forage availability and water harvesting will undoubtedly reduce farmer’s vulnerability
to disaster, feed & food insecurity, water stress as well. In order to support the farming
community, it is wise to pay particular attention to researching & making accessible crop
varieties which are productive, drought tolerant & disease resistant.
• Develop compost preparation and utilization: Compost is an excellent soil builder and
valuable natural fertilizer that contain readily available plant nutrients. It helps all crops grow
better, and its effects last several cropping seasons. So that the region have to give attention
in planning in order to allow farmers to improve their incomes without taking on debt.
• Develop livestock feeding and cross breeding: In order to improve production and
productivity. Animals that are well fed grow and mature quickly produce a lot of milk, can
work hard, and do not fall ill easily. There fare the need of this strategy is very essential.
• Promoting integrated pest management: This is integrated pest control that gives priority
to all other protection measures before pesticide use. According to FAO concepts for plant
protection which makes use of all acceptable economic, ecological methods for keeping the
numbers of destructive organism below the economic damage threshold whereby the
purposeful use of natural regulatory factors is of primary importance. So this is the best
advisable strategy to adopt and protect plant & disease without affecting or minimum
affecting environment.
• Control and management of diseases: Both human and livestock diseases can increase
during periods of stress, particularly prolonged droughts and unseasoned floods.
Preventative measures may include floodwater management intervention, mobility and
hygienic practices (water, health and sanitation). In view of the expansion of existing human
and livestock diseases and the emergence of new varieties, it is crucial to develop systematic
monitoring and periodic assessment systems, and disease prevention and control programs.
• Developing surface water resource by construction of reservoirs. It is a reasonable

alternative to increase the residence time of a laser draining off the land unfortunately
construction of large dam is coasty but here we address construction of small to medium size
reservoirs.
• Develop New Waste management methods mainly based on biological process have been
Identified and developed to convert waste material into energy and organic fertilizers that is
into useful and marketable products. The methods do not have disadvantage easily Adaptable
and efficient system for waste water and solid waste treatment.
• Among the available of solid waste treatment & disposal method sanitary/ land fill
method is selected as a best method of solid waste disposal method for Harar town.
Construction of SLF is best strategy. Involvement and participation of the private sector in
the management of solid waste is minimal therefore involvement of private sector in
collection and disposal of solid waste has to be given due attention.
• Support environment and climate friendly development initiatives: Different

development options may be available. Some of these may aggravate the impacts of climate
change by affecting the development and availability of critical resources such as water,
land, range, forest and energy resources. Development programs and initiatives that build on
local circumstances; maximize transfer of relevant knowledge and technology; promote the
management and sustainable utilization of environmental resources help increase the
resilience of local systems to the impacts of climate change while development practices
that are not climate proof may increase vulnerability to climate impacts.
• Build local capacity: Building local capacity to collect, analyze and interpret climate data
and share results at the local and national levels will improve local weather forecasts,
seasonal climate predictions, risk, and impact assessments. There is also need for
interdisciplinary research and knowledge management to boost understanding on local
adaptation, livelihood enhancement and mitigation options. Recognizing that climate change
is altering and will further alter many existing equilibriums in the social, economic and
environmental arena, socio-economic and political dynamics must be considered, and the
role of all actors and development partners need to be re-examined, redefined and integrated
for the common goal.
• Integrating climate risk management into development practice: While agriculture has
traditionally been the focus of attention on climate change impact, nearly every sector is
sensitive to climate change and will need to adapt to future conditions. Adaptation must be
approached cross-sect orally and should no longer be perceived as only the responsibility of
the environment ministry. Involving the Ministry of Finance is crucial to reflect adaptation
efforts in the budget. One key element in integrating climate risk management into
development practice is reaching people at the level of communities. Integrating climate
information into the risk management strategies of communities with climate-sensitive
livelihoods depends on effective use of communication infrastructure and networks to
support dialogue with users, to facilitate awareness and education campaigns, and to receive
feedback so that users can influence the services they receive.
• Integrated disaster risk reduction and early warning system: The existing disaster
preparedness and early warning system are narrow in scope & busied towards capturing the
treats of drought and food security in on emergency situation. The system should be
reoriented and broadened to capture other emerging treats to livelihoods and ecosystem from
multifaceted impacts of climate change in the farming lands including flood, human and
livestock disease, crop pests and noxious weeds.
Integrated and holistic disaster risk reduction requires an early warning system and practical
action to prevent disasters from happing or significantly reducing their impact during and
often they occur. Not simply through technical preventive measures, but more importantly
through reducing social vulnerability and embarking on social and economic development
designed to build local resilience and resistance to climate change. Hence, there is an urgent
need to move away from the current disaster emergency relief driven syndrome towards
multi-hazard and cross sector consideration.
• Possible adaption measures to improve Tourism, culture and heritage Sector of

Harar
1. Preparation of a strategic plan for tourism
2. Teaching the community about tourism
3. Requirement of a well organized and institutionalized office
4. Preparation of tourist guide and guideline
5. Cleaning the city
6. Resolving the problem of kebele houses
7. Poverty reduction policy
8. Reducing the existing suffocation of Jugel
9. Necessity to give due attention to the number of permanent /original people
10. Avoiding stigma and discrimination
11. A Heritage conservation research institute has been established and it has become fully
operational
12. Proclamations for environment to Impact assessment and pollution
13. The government has taken positive measures to encourage the involvement of private
investing in the development of eco-tourism
Furthermore, the region’s tourism office recommends the following major areas of focus to
strengthen the tourism sector and enhance its economic contribution for the nation as well as the
region.
• Damage to or destruction of sacred sites or the viability of traditional cultural practices,

disproportionately affecting indigenous peoples; this global environmental change prompt
new human adaptive strategies which conflicts with traditional practices, undermining the
viability of traditional life ways, sacrificing long-held knowledge of crafts, industries,
conservation methods, and much more along the way.
Section 10
Conclusions and recommendations

Climate change is the most important issue facing the planet and its people today. Meeting this
challenge will define a generation and dictate the extent of the impacts to be felt by generations
to come. It is widely recognized that failure to respond to this challenge would impede national,
regional and global efforts aimed at reducing poverty, inequality, and insecurity. While it is a
threat to all societies and ecosystems, climate change poses the biggest threat to people already
living in poverty and insecurity. In Ethiopia, climate change poses particular risks to small
farmers and who have an immediate daily dependence on climate sensitive livelihoods and
natural resources. The limited economic, institutional and logistical capacity to adapt to climate
change exacerbates the vulnerability of millions of small farmers and herders to climate change –
induced hazards. The pace of change in the pattern of climate and different forms of
environmental hazards in the country often exceeds the capacity of local institutions to adapt to
or mitigate the effects of such changes. Some of the challenges of this environmental change
such as local and regional food insecurity and hunger are high on the agenda of Ethiopian’s
development goals.
• Sustain the regional afforestation efforts by in respective of the biodiversity the

government and the people in.
• Enhance the overall capacity of the region in with standing the calamitous effects of
environmental disaster.
• Economically efficient supply and use of energy
• Diversification of energy sources leading to enhanced security of supply
• Protection of the environment, in particular the management of air quality
• Energy sector reform to increase economic efficiency by introducing more private sector
participation, more competition in supply and distribution, and increased consumer
choice over energy suppliers
• Efficient use of resource, including energy resource, through green tax reform climate
change mitigation through emissions trading
• Improved environmental performance such as preventing pollution of underground
waters
• Grater sustainability through, among other things, improved food quality, rural
development, organic farming and land-use planning
• Land-use change and forestry:
• Conservation of biodiversity, wildlife, Soil and water
• Afforestation and reforestation to increase sink capacity
• Reducing the impact of waste on air, soil and underground waters
• Recycling and minimizing waste
• Building human and institutional capacity
Scale up funding and understand cost of adaptation: ensure that funding for
implementation of adaptation goes beyond the mainstreaming of adaptation in to the
development process, and includes standalone adaptation projects.
• Massively scale up funding for adaptation
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Harri Regional State Climate Change Adaptation Program

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H a r a r i P e o p l e R e g i o n a l S t a t e P r o g r a m o f P l a n O n A d a p t i o n t o C l i m a t e C h a n g e 2011

Harari People Regional State

Regional Task Team Members

Technical and Financial Support:

Environmental Protection Authority of

Section 2 ………………………………………………………………………… …….……………………………13

General profile of the Harari regional state ……………………...............................................13

2.2 General Climate information …………………………………………………………………………………… 14

2.3 Demographic and Socio-economic Features ……………………………………………………………………..14

2.3.1 Migration ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………15

2.4 Resource and Land Use System ………………………………………………………………………………... 16

2.4.1 Land use potential and Agricultural Land holding…………………………………………………………16

Impacts of climate change in the Harari people Regional state ……………………………………… 21

3.1.1. Pattern of local climate (temperature and precipitation)…………………………………………………………….. 21

3.1.2 Temperature variability and trends ………………………………………………………………………………….. 22

3.2 Impact on ecosystem……………………………………………………………………………………………...28

3.2.1 Forest …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..28

3.2.3 Land degradation…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 30

3.2.4 Water ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 32

3.3 Human and livestock diseases…………………………………………..……………………………………….. 32

3.3.1. Human diseases………………………………………………........................................................................ . 32

3.3.2 Animal disease………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 36

4.1 The vulnerable sectors to climate change in Harari People Regional

4.1.1.2 Live stock production……………………………………………………………………………………………….40

4.1.2 Water sector……………………………………………………………………………………………………………41

4.1.2.1 Ground Water ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….41

4.1.3 Health sector ……………………………………………………………..............................................................41

4.1.8 Archaeological and cultural resource…………………………………………………………………………….. 44

4.1.9 Heritage and tourism ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 45

5.1 Adaptive capacity of Agriculture sector……………………………………………………………………………………50

5.1.1Crop pest and disease…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 55

5.1.2 Ground nut fungal Disease………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 56

5.1.3 Weed control………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 57

5.2 Adaptive capacity of health sector…………………………………………………………………………………………… 59

5.2.1 Human health…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 59

5.2.2 Animal health……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..60

5.3 Early warning system………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 61

5.4 Adaptive capacity of Education sector………………………………………………………………………………………. . 62

5.5 Access to infrastructure…………………………………………………………………………………………………………63

5.6 Institutional capacity………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 64

5. 7 Adaptive capacity of micro-finance institution……………………………………………………………………………….. 65

5.8 Adaptive capacity of tourism sector……………………………………………………………………………………………65

5.9 Adaptive capacity of water sector…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 67

5.10 Adaptive capacity of the region for solid waste management……………………………………………………………… 68

6.1 Addressing climate change impacts………………………………………………………………………………………….. 69

6.1.1.1 Crop production……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 70

6.1.1.2 Livestock farming…………………………………………………………………………………..……………71

6.1.2 Human health……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 71

6.1.3 Water supply…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 72

6.1.5 Natural resource management…………………………………………………………………………………………….73

Section 7…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… .82

Impact assessment of response measures in order to address possible mal-adaptations…………………………..84

8.1 Emergency Interventions……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 85

8.2 Development Interventions…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 85

Suggested adaptation measures and strategies……………………………………………………………………………………86

Conclusions and recommendations………………………………………………………………………………… 90

List of Tables and Figures

Table: 2. - Land use potential in Harari region……………………………………………………………17

Table: 3.3 some indigenous plants of Harari region……………...…………………………………….. 29

Table: 4.3 Lists of Hotels and their facility (1997-2001 E.C)…………………………………………………….. 49

Table: 5.1 ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 51

Table: 5.4 The distribution of pesticides ………………………………………………………………….55

Table: 5.6 Distribution and invasion of parthenium weed in Harari region……………………………. 56

Table: 5.10 Telecommunication and Number of Clients by Service (1997-2001)E.C……………………63