Characteristics of Plants Growth

Module 8
Growth is the manifestation of life. All organisms, the simplest as well as the most intricate, are slowly
changing the whole time they are alive. They transform material into more of themselves.
From such ingredients as minerals, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, hormones etc., organisms
form additional protoplasm. The formation of protoplasm is called assimilation.
A large part of the food which a plant manufactures is used as a source of energy. Food may be
consumed soon after it is produced, or it may be stored and used as a source of energy for the plant or its
offspring weeks, months, or even years later.
A healthy plant, however, manufactures more food than is necessary to maintain the activities of its
living substance, and the surplus may be built, more or less permanently, into its tissues, producing new
protoplasm and new cell walls and thus promoting the growth of the plant body. Growth represents the excess
of constructive over destructive metabolism.
Growth involves an irreversible increase in size which is usually, but not necessarily, accompanied by
an increase in dry weight. The basic process of growth is the production of new protoplasm, which is clearly
evident in the regions of active cell division.
The next stage in growth is increase in plant size, which is the result of absorption of water and the
consequent stretching of the tissues, a process which in the strict sense is not growth at all, since it involves
little or no increase in the characteristic material of the plant itself.
The third and the last stage in growth involves the entry of plenty of building materials, chiefly
carbohydrates, into the expanded young tissues. This results in an increase in the dry weight but no visible
increase in external size of the plant. Growth is, however, more than just an increasing amount of the plant.
Differential growth of plant parts results in a characteristic shape. Each plant species has a distinctive form,
development by growth patterns.

Differentiation
Differentiation can be recognized at cell level, tissue level, organ level, and at the level of an organism.
It becomes more obvious at the level of organ and organism. For instance, if we consider flower as an organ of
plant, is bears sepals for photosynthesis and protection of inner floral parts; beautiful, coloured petals to attract
insects for cross-pollination ; stamens for producing male gametes; and the carpels for bearing the ovules which
after fertilization produce seeds.
Considering an angiosperm as an organism, we observe that it possesses the roots for absorption of
water and minerals and fixation in the soil; the trunk and stem branches bear leaves for photosynthesis, flowers
and fruits; the fruits for bearing the seeds which on germination form each a new plant.

Development
Development implies a whole sequence of qualitative structural changes that a plant undergoes from the
zygote stage to its death. The developmental changes may be gradual or abrupt. Examples of certain abrupt
changes are germination, flowering and senescence (ageing leading to death).
Slow developmental changes include formation and maturation of tissues, formation of vegetative and
floral buds and the formation of reproductive organs. Unlike growth, development is a qualitative change. It
cannot be measured in quantitative terms, and is either described or illustrated with the help of photographs or
drawings. Development includes growth (cell division, enlargement and differentiation), morphogenesis,
maturation and senescence.
The growth cycle of annual, monocarpic, flowering plants (angiosperms) begins with the fertilized egg,
the zygote. The zygote develops into an embryo following cell divisions and differentiation (embryonic stage).
The embryo is enclosed within a seed where it undergoes a period of inactivity (dormancy). The resting embryo
resumes growth during the germination of seed and develops into a seedling (seedling stage).
The seedling grows into a vegetative plant (vegetative phase). After some period of vegetative growth,
the plant undergoes maturation and enters the reproductive phase. It develops flowers and fruits, the latter
containing the seeds. Finally senescence sets in (senescence stage) leading to the death of the plant.
In unicellular organisms, growth consists of an increase in the size or volume (enlargement) of the cell.
This increase is due to the synthesis of new protoplasm. Growth in unicellular organisms thus consists of single
phase or step. Growth leads to maturation (“adults”) or full grown individuals. Cell division in unicellular
organisms results in their multiplication or reproduction.
In simple multicellular organisms like Spirogyra, growth involves two phases or steps, cell division and
enlargement. Cell division results in increase in the number of cells in the filamentous alga. The newly formed
cells enlarge or increase in size. As a result, the filament of Spirogyra grows. In, flowering plants, however,
growth involves three phases’ cell division, enlargement and differentiation.
Cell division and differentiation are important aspects of growth and development in both animals and
plants. In plants, the growth may be diffuse or localized. Diffuse growth occurs in lower forms of life i.e.,
filamentous algae. Here each cell of the multicellular plant body can divide and enlarge. The higher plants,
especially, the trees are built up in a modular fashion i.e. their development is relatively open-ended and their
structure never complete.
In such plants, the growth continues throughout with the new organs forming, replacing the old ones.
Here the growth is localized i.e. growth is confined to certain specific regions, the growing points. Localized
growth occurs due to the activity of a group of cells called the meristems. Depending upon the location of the
meristems, the growth may be apical, intercalary and lateral.

Phases of Plant Growth

As a plant is made up of cells, its growth will be the sum total of the growth of its cells.

The growth of cells involves three main phases:

(1) The phase of cell division (formative phase),
(2) Cell enlargement and cell differentiation.
(3) Cell Differentiation or Cell Maturation.

1. Phase of Cell Division (Formative Phase)

Cell division is the basic event for the growth of multicellular plants. All cells in an organism result
from the division of pre-existing cells. The type of cell division that occurs during the growth of an
organism is mitosis. It is a quantitative as well as qualitative division that is generally completed in two
stages: the division of the nucleus (karyokinesis), followed by the division of the cytoplasm
(cytokinesis).

During mitosis, the cell passes through prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase, resulting in equal
distribution of the genetical material and the cytoplasm in each of the two daughter cells thus formed.
Further, the daughter cells are genetically similar to the parent cell. As a result of this process, cells
having the same genetic constitution get multiplied.

In higher plants, cell divisions continuously occur in the meristematic regions, such as apical meristem.
As a result, an increase in the number of cells takes place in the meristematic region. Some of the
daughter cells retain the meristematic activity, while others enter the next phase of growth— the phase
of cell enlargement.
 2. Phase of Cell Enlargement
The cell enlargement plays an important role in contributing to the size of the tissue and organs. The
enlargement occurs by synthesizing protoplasm, absorbing water (hydration), developing vacuoles and
adding new cell wall material to the stretched, thin elastic walls to make them slightly thicker and
permanent. Cell enlargement may be linear or in all directions.

3. Phase of Cell Differentiation or Cell Maturation

During the last phase, the enlarged cells eventually acquire a specific size and form according to their
location and role following biochemical, physiological and morphological changes, i.e., the cells
undergo specialization or transformation. As a result, various kinds of cells get differentiated. These
differentiated cells form different kinds of simple and complex tissues which perform different
functions.

Assessment

1. What is the manifestation of life?

2. What is the process called when organisms form additional protoplasm?

3. What represents the excess of constructive over destructive metabolism?

4. What is the result of absorption of water and the stretching of tissues?

5. What is the process that involves the entry of building materials into expanded tissues, resulting in
an increase in dry weight?

6. What is the sequence of qualitative structural changes that a plant undergoes from the zygote stage
to its death?

7. What are the abrupt changes in a plant's development?

8. What are the three main phases of cell growth?

9. What is the type of cell division that occurs during the growth of an organism?

10. What phase of growth involves the cells acquiring a specific size and form and undergoing
specialization or transformation?

How does the plants grow? (Explain in at least 3 sentences) 25pts.

DNA in Plants
Module 9

DNA is the hereditary or genetic material, present in all cells, that carries information for the structure and
function of living things.

In the plant kingdom, DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is contained within the membrane-bound cell structures
of the nucleus, mitochondria, and chloroplasts. DNA has several properties that are unique among chemical
molecules.
It is universal to all living organisms, having the same structure and function in each. It is capable of
reproducing itself in a process known as self-replication. This property allows cell division, and thus continuity,
growth, and repair.

It carries in its structure the genetic code, or set of instructions, for cellular development and maintenance.
Finally, it undergoes changes in chemical structure, from both environmental and internal causes, called
mutations, which contribute to evolution, diversity, and disease.

Chemical Structure

DNA is a simple molecule, consisting of four nucleotides. Each nucleotide has a five-carbon sugar
(deoxyribose), a phosphate, and one of four possible nitrogenous bases: the double-ringed purines of adenine
(A) and guanine (G) and the single-ringed pyrimidines of thymine (T) and cytosine (C).

Most of the properties of DNA relate to the unique bonds that form among the nucleotides: The sugarphosphate
components align themselves linearly, while the nitrogen rings bond perpendicularly.

The nitrogen rings further bond in a very specific fashion:A always pairs with T, and Galways pairs
with C. The DNAmolecule thus appears as a ladder, the sides being sugar-phosphate; the rungs, the A-T and G-
C pairs. Further bonding and folding produces a structure shaped like a spiral ladder, known as a double helix.
This double helix is compactly packaged in rope like structures known as chromosomes, which are visible
under a light microscope before and during cell division. During the daily life of the cell, the DNA appears as
an indistinguishable dark mass call chromatin (an inclusive term referring to DNA and the proteins that bind to
it, located in the nuclei of eukaryotic cells).
The Watson and Crick Model
In the mid-1800’s Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, postulated that genetic material existed. He discovered
the laws of heredity using the pea and other plants in his garden to study the inheritance of such traits as flower
color.
Nearly seventy years passed before scientists James Watson and Francis Crick, in 1953, proposed the double
helix as the most plausible model for each of the unique properties of the molecule. Their model was verified
by X-ray diffraction techniques soon afterward.
Several researchers, working at Columbia University and elsewhere in the United States, had led the way prior
to Watson and Crick by discovering the chemical composition of this genetic material and the nitrogenous base
pairing: The amount of adenine always equaled that of thymine and like-wise with guanine and cytosine.
The Watson and Crick model also suggested that the two sides, or strands, of DNA run in opposite directions:
That is, the phosphate sugar of one side points upward, while the other strand points downward.
This property is known as antiparallel bonding. The Watson and Crick model could easily explain how DNA
replicates during cell division and how genetic information is encoded in its structure.

Self-Replication
Self-replication, which allows the continuity of generations and the growth and repair of individual organisms,
occurs during cell division. DNA must be able to produce exact copies of itself. The molecule is uniquely
designed for this: A series of enzyme-mediated steps allows the double helix to unwind or unzip, like a zipper,
separating the two strands. Next, nucleotides from digested food enter first the cell and then the nucleus. They
bind to a corresponding nucleotide: A with T and G with C. The process continues until two new double-
stranded molecules of DNA have formed, each a copy of the other and each going into the new cells that
resulted from cell division.

Protein Synthesis
The information encoded in DNA allows for all the development and maintenance of the cell and the organism.
The language of this code lies in a linear reading of adjacent nucleotides on each strand. Every three
nucleotides specify or fit a particular amino acid, the individual units of proteins. A second molecule,
ribonucleic acid (RNA), copies the molecular structure of DNA and brings the information outside the nucleus
into the surrounding cytoplasm of the cell,where the amino acids are assembled, in specified order, to produce a
protein. Post production modifications of these proteins, such as the addition of sugars, fats, or metals, allow a
vast array of functional and structural diversity. Plant DNA codes for a variety of substances that are unique to
plants. These products sustain not only the plants themselves but also entire ecological niches, as well as
humankind.

Mitochondrial and Chloroplastic DNA

A second, independently functioning set of DNA exists in two organelles outside the cell’s nucleus, the
mitochondria and the chloroplast. It is in the mitochondria, the power sources of cells, where carbohydrates,
fats, and proteins are broken down to their raw elements with the release of stored chemical bond energy in the
form of heat (calories). The second region in which DNA is housed outside the nucleus is in the chloroplast, a
structure unique to plant cells. In chloroplasts, photosynthesis occurs, the process by which plants are able to
transform carbon dioxide, water, and solar energy to produce sugars and, later, fats and proteins, with the
release of oxygen. This critical process undertaken by plants sustains most life on earth. Both mitochondrial and
chloroplastic DNA replicate separately from nuclear DNA during cell division. It is postulated that these
organelles once, billions of years ago, may have been independently living organisms that were incorporated
into other cells to form the eukaryotic cells that make up nonbacterial life-forms such as fungi, protists, plants,
and animals.

Plant Proteins
A large array of proteins that are unique to plants are encoded on plant DNA. A group that has received
much attention are the so-called phytochemicals, substances with powerful health benefits. Well studied classes
are few, including the flavonoids, phytosterols, carotenoids, indoles, coumarins, organosulfurs, terpenes,
saponins, lignans, and isothiocyanates. Each group contains specific proteins that are both antioxidants and
anticarcinogens protecting animal cells from cancer-causing agents. The carotenoids, such as beta-carotene,
found in orange and yellow fruits and vegetables, and lycopenes, found in tomatoes, appear to protect animals
against heart disease and stroke as well as cancer. The phytosterols, like those found in soybeans, are estrogen
like compounds that mimic female hormones. These appear to protect female organs from cancers and also
appear to lower cholesterol.

Plant Hormones
Large segments of plant DNA are devoted to coding for specialized plant hormones. Hormones are
substances that are produced by one group of cells, circulate to another site, and affect the DNA of the target
cells. In plants, these hormones control cell division, growth, and differentiation. There are five well-described
classes of plant hormones: the auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene, and abscisic acid. Among the auxins’
functions is allowing phototropism, the property that makes plants bend toward the light. Produced in the roots,
auxins travel to stems,making cells elongate on the dark side of plant tissue. Ethylene is a gaseous substance
that ripens fruits and causes them to drop from the plant. Abscisic acid contributes to the aging and falling of
leaves.

Genetically Modified Plants

Because plants are easy to manipulate, plant DNA is second only to bacterial DNA as a primary
experimental subject for bioengineers. The direct modification of DNA by adding or removing a particular
segment of genes that code for specific traits is the focus of bioengineering and biotechnology. Because plants
provide the major food source for human and livestock populations, genetically modified foods have been
developed that resist insects, bacteria, viruses, and other pests and decrease the need for external pesticides.
Genetically modified plant crops are designed to enhance a variety of characteristics, from looking and tasting
good to growing faster or ripening more slowly to having no seeds. The introduction of genes from other
kingdoms, such as the animal kingdom, into plant DNA is allowing scientists to develop future crops that may
contain human vaccines, human hormones, and other pharmaceutical products. A tomato was the first federally
approved bioengineered food to be sold in the United States. Today, dozens of produce items and livestock feed
are in some way genetically modified.

Assessment

1. What is the hereditary or genetic material present in all cells?

2. Where is DNA contained within the plant kingdom?
3. What is the unique property of DNA that allows it to reproduce itself?
4. What are the four nitrogenous bases present in DNA?
5. How do the nitrogenous bases in DNA pair with each other?
6. What is the structure of DNA called?
7. Who proposed the double helix model for DNA structure?
8. What is the process by which DNA produces exact copies of itself?
9. What is the molecule that copies the structure of DNA and brings the information outside the nucleus?
10. Where is the second set of DNA found outside the nucleus in plant cells?
11. What is genetic modification (GM) of crops and how is it done? (3 sentences) 25pts