Chapter 2

Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina

•Stress, Strain
•Stress–strain relationships for different types of materials
•Stress–strain relationships for a unidirectional/bidirectional lamina

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 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina
10. Invariant Form of Stiffness and Compliance Matrices for an Angle
Lamina
• The expression of the transformed stiffness and compliance matrix are not
analytically convenient because they do not allow a direct study of the effect
of the angle of the lamina on the matrices.

• The stiffness elements can be written in invariant form as

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 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina
10. Invariant Form of Stiffness and Compliance Matrices for an Angle
Lamina
The terms U1, U2, U3, and U4 are the four invariants and are combination of the Qij,
which are invariants as well.

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 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina
10. Invariant Form of Stiffness and Compliance Matrices for an Angle
Lamina

The transformed reduced compliance The terms V1, V2, V3, and V4 are invariants
matrix can similarly be written as and are combinations of Sij, which are also
invariants

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 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina
10. Invariant Form of Stiffness and Compliance Matrices for an Angle
Lamina

• The main advantage of writing the equations in this form is that one can easily examine
the effect of the lamina angle on the reduced stiffness matrix elements.

• Also, formulas with invariant are easier to manipulate for integration, differentiation, etc.

• The elastic moduli of quasi-isotropic laminates that behave like isotropic material are
directly given in terms of these invariants

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 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina
11. hygro-thermal effects

• Thermal and humidity effect on the mechanical properties of Composite Material

• The Young's modulus and the resistance of the materials decrease as the temperature and
the humidity increase. The following curves give the trends of variations.

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 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina
11. hygro-thermal effects

Thermal Effect

Taking into account the influence of temperature, the law of behavior is then given by the
Hooke-Duhamel law:

T: variation of the temperature compared to the neutral state, (I): unit matrix, α the dilation
coefficient

The effect of the temperature acts only the normal strain

Longitudinal dilatation effect

Transversal dilatation effect

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 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina

• In the case of stresses along the local axes and plane constraints, the constitutive Law::

• In the case of stresses in the global axes and plane constraints, the constitutive Law::

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 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina

hygrometric Effect

humidity coefficients in the directions: β

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 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina
12. Strength and Failure Criteria for An Orthotropic Lamina :

•A successful design of a structure requires efficient and safe use of

materials.
•Theories need to be developed to compare the state of stress in a
material to failure criteria.
•It should be noted that failure theories are only stated and their
application is validated by experiments.
•The first step in such a definition is the establishment of allowable
stresses or strengths in the principal material directions.

•For a lamina stressed in its own plane, there are five fundamental
strengths:
Xt = axial or longitudinal strength in tension
Xc= axial or longitudinal strength in compression
Yt = transverse strength in tension
Yc = transverse strength in compression
S = shear strength

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 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina
12. Strength and Failure Criteria for An Orthotropic Lamina :

Or

 Experimental Determination of Strength and Stiffness:

Stiffness

Strength

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 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina

Measuring E1 & V12 & X:

Uniaxial tension loading in the 1-direction

ASTM D 638 tension test specimen

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 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina

Measuring E2 & V21 & Y:

Uniaxial tension loading in the 2-direction

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 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina

Measuring G12:
Uniaxial tension loading at 45° to the 1-direction

 G12

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 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina
Measuring G12 & S:
Torsion tube test

Sandwich cross-beam test Rail shear test

(By Shockey and described by (By Whitney, Stansbarger, & Howell)
Waddoups) “It’s widely used in aerospace
industry”

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 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina

 Maximum Stress Failure Theory:

Maximum normal stress theory by Rankine
Like theories for isotropic materials
Maximum shearing stress theory by Tresca

•The stresses acting on a lamina are resolved into the normal

and shear stresses in the local axes.
•Failure is predicted in a lamina, if any of the normal or shear
stresses in the local axes of a lamina is equal to or exceeds the
corresponding ultimate strengths of the unidirectional lamina.
•Given the stresses or strains in the global axes of a lamina,
one can find the stresses in the material axes by using
Equation
•Theses 5 criteria act independently and don’t interact with the
others.

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 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina

Example Find the max. value of S>0 if a stress of σx=2S, σy=–3S, and τxy
=4S is applied to the 60° lamina of graphite/epoxy. Use maximum stress
failure theory and the properties of a unidirectional graphite/epoxy lamina
given in Table of page 97.

Solution:

• The preceding inequalities also show that the angle lamina will fail in shear.
• The maximum stress that can be applied before failure is:

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 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina

Strength Ratio:
•In a failure theory such as the maximum stress failure theory of Section, it can be
determined whether a lamina has failed if any of the inequalities of Equation are
violated.
•However, this does not give the information about how much the load can be increased
if the lamina is safe or how much the load should be decreased if the lamina has failed.

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 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina

Examples : Assume that one is applying a load of σx=2MPa, σy=−3MPa,

τxy=4MPa to a 60° angle lamina of graphite/epoxy. Find the strength ratio
using the maximum stress failure theory.

Solution:
If the strength ratio is R, then the maximum stress that can be applied is
σx=2R, σy=−3R, τxy=4R
Following the preceding Example for finding the local stresses gives
σ1=0.1714×10 R, σ2=−0.2714×10R, τ12=−0.4165×10 R
Using the maximum stress failure theory as given by Equation yields
R=16.33
Thus, the load that can be applied just before failure is
σx=16.33×2=32.66 MPa, σy=16.33×(−3)=-48.99 MPa, τxy=16.33×4=65.32 MPa

Note that all the components of the stress vector must be multiplied by the strength
ratio
If SR > 1: then the lamina is safe and the applied stress can be increased by a factor of
SR.
If SR < 1: the lamina is unsafe and the applied stress needs to be reduced by a factor of
SR.
SR = 1: implies the failure load.

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 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina

Examples : Assume that one is applying a load of σx=2MPa, σy=−3MPa,

τxy=4MPa to a 60° angle lamina of graphite/epoxy. Find the strength ratio
using the maximum stress failure theory.

Solution:
If the strength ratio is R, then the maximum stress that can be applied is
σx=2R, σy=−3R, τxy=4R
Following the preceding Example for finding the local stresses gives
σ1=0.1714×10 R, σ2=−0.2714×10R, τ12=−0.4165×10 R
Using the maximum stress failure theory as given by Equation yields
R=16.33
Thus, the load that can be applied just before failure is
σx=16.33×2=32.66 MPa, σy=16.33×(−3)=-48.99 MPa, τxy=16.33×4=65.32 MPa

Note that all the components of the stress vector must be multiplied by the strength
ratio
If SR > 1: then the lamina is safe and the applied stress can be increased by a factor of
SR.
If SR < 1: the lamina is unsafe and the applied stress needs to be reduced by a factor of
SR.
SR = 1: implies the failure load.

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 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina

Failure Envelopes:
A failure envelope is a three-dimensional plot of the combinations of the normal and
shear stresses that can be applied to an angle lamina just before failure.

Drawing three dimensional graphs can be time consuming: developing failure envelopes
for constant shear stress τxy (2 normal stresses σx and σy as the two axes): Then, if the
applied stress is within the failure envelope, the lamina is safe; otherwise, it has failed.
Failure envelope for the 60° lamina of
graphite/epoxy for a constant shear stress of τxy
= 24 Mpa (Example p.145, Kaw)

Failure Criteria for Metals

 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina

1. Maximum Shear stress theory (Tresca)

 max 
  p max   p min  S
2

S = shear strength

2. Distortion energy (Von mises)

Failure Criteria for Metals

X = axial or longitudinal strength in

tension
 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina

 Maximum Strain Failure Theory:

oThis theory is based on the maximum normal strain

theory by St. Venant and the maximum shear stress
theory by Tresca as applied to isotropic materials.
oThe strains applied to a lamina are resolved to
strains in the local axes
oFailure is predicted in a lamina, if any of the normal
or shearing strains in the local axes of a lamina equal
or exceed the corresponding ultimate strains of the
unidirectional lamina

Note: In fact, if the Poisson’s ratio is zero in the unidirectional lamina, the
two failure theories will give identical results.
 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina

Example Find the maximum value of S>0 if a stress, σx=2S, σy=–3S, and
τxy=4S, is applied to a 60° graphite/epoxy lamina. Use maximum strain
failure theory. Use the properties of the graphite/epoxy unidirectional lamina
given in Table p.97

Solution:
Considering “[S]” and “local stresses” from example 2.6 (Kaw) (here):
 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina

Assume a linear relationship between all the stresses and strains until failure;
then the ultimate failure strains are

Using the inequalities and recognizing that S>0:

 Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina

o The maximum value of S before failure is 16.33 MPa. The same maximum
value of S = 16.33 MPa is also found using maximum stress failure theory.

oThere is no difference between the two values because the mode of failure
is shear. However, if the mode of failure were other than shear, a difference in
the prediction of failure loads would have been present due to the Poisson’s
ratio effect, which couples the normal strains and stresses in the local axes.

oNeither the maximum stress failure theory nor the maximum strain failure
theory has any coupling among the five possible modes of failure.

oThe following theories are based on the interaction failure theory:

 Tsai-Hill
 Tsai-Wu