Direct hydrocarbon indicators (DHIs)

Direct hydrocarbon indicators (DHIs) are an anomalous type of seismic amplitude that may occur due to the
presence of hydrocarbons. They occur due to a change in pore fluids, which cause a change in the bulk rock’s
elastic properties. [2] DHIs are mainly common in relatively young, unconsolidated siliciclastic sediments that
have large impedance across lithologic boundaries. They have various types of characteristics, which can
identified by the relationship between depth and acoustic impedance. DHIs are used in hydrocarbon
exploration wells, mainly to reduce the geological risks.

Figure 1. Different examples of finding Direct Hydrocarbon Indicators. Credit: GEO ExPro [1]

Overview of Data Analysis

Before analysis, we must consider where our potential traps could be, the volume of such traps, as well as
our uncertainties and risks

Rock properties trend with depth

The acoustic impedance is determined by the P-wave velocity and density of a rock; also related to the
mineralogy, porosity, pore fluids, temperature, and pressure. [4] Impedance will change based on the fluids in
the pores, which can be filled with water, oil, or gas. As the pore space is filled with gas, the Vp lowers while
Vs remains unaffected; therefore, it affects the reflection coefficient at the top and bottom of a reservoir,
which are known as DHIs. In general, sands tend to compact faster than shales, as they have a higher
impedance; yet, water sands have about the same impedance as shale, meaning the amplitude of reflections
are weaker.[3] Oil sands have a lower impedance than water sands and shales; while gas sands have a lower
impedance than oil sands. [2] If encased by shales, especially the gas sands, they would have a higher
reflection amplitude due to the opposite polarities. [3] These are differentiable based on their amplitude
response. Gas is compressible, whereas water is not. Therefore, the presence of either will lower the P-wave
velocity. The difference in impedance tends to lower as we go deeper, as the amplitude response will become
less diagnostic. The greater the impedance between the sand and the shale, the greater the anomaly.
Figure 2. Acoustic Properties of Different Reservoir Fluids. Credit: IRIS [2]

Time-to-depth conversion
Time-to-depth conversion is important when it comes to exploration, development, and production. Velocity
is key, as it measures the relationship between the travel time (seconds) and depth (meters) in our seismic
data. Such data is measured in vertical units of two-way travel time; therefore, we can find velocity for our
seismic data with the following formula:

Velocity is controlled by the geology of the region, such as age, depth, and lithology; it can be estimated
through well logs or seismic processing. This conversion is most importantly used for well planning and
modeling for the purpose of production; it is used to validate structural interpretations, get rid of data noise,
and perform economic calculations. Before performing the depth conversion, there is a process to go
through:

1. Check available data and its quality.

2. Consider velocity structure.
3. Determine best method of conversion.
4. Perform conversion.
5. Check calculated depths and make corrections. [5]

Figure 3. Time-to-depth conversion phases for production. Credit: IRIS [5]

Identifying traps
Structural fold traps

 Anticlines (as hydrocarbons migrate to anticlines, the traps fill down; if the trap is overfilled, it reaches a
synclinal leak point).
 High side fault blocks
 Low side roll overs
Stratigraphic traps

 Sand pinch-outs
 Unconformity traps
Combination traps (structural and stratigraphic)
 Deep water channel crossing at an anticline [3]

Figure 4. Different types of Hydrocarbon traps. Credit: Egy Petroleum [6]

Figure 4.1. Trap Analysis: Leak Point. Credit: Geological Society of London [7]
DHI and AVO analysis
Amplitude variation with offset (AVO) is a method in which geophysicists can try to determine the velocity,
density, porosity, lithology, thickness, and fluid contents of a rock. In order to make a successful AVO
analysis, the fluid content must be known. It is based on the Knott-Zoeppritz equations. [9] One of the main
factors for AVO is the seismic response to fluid saturation. [10]
AVO is prone to misinterpretation, as it has a limitation to only using P-wave energy, which leads to failure to
provide a unique solution. However, AVO analysis uses a source-generated shear wave energy that allows for
the differentiation of gas saturations, as the impact of incident angle is different for different kinds of fluids.
[3]
The most common misinterpretation is the failure to distinguish a high saturation gas filled reservoir from
fizz gas, a reservoir which contains partial gas saturation.
As some DHIs may be challenging to find, it is critical that before interpretation, there is time spent deciding
what the rock properties behaviors are and their manifestations. As the acoustic impedance between a
reservoir and overlying seal change, we see different amplitude responses:

Figure 5. Amplitude variations with offset (AVO) reduce the risk of exploration. AVO anomalies resulted in gas discovery.
Credit: Atlas Exploration [8]

Bright spots
Bright spot is referred to as a spot with a local increase of amplitude associated with hydrocarbon
accumulations.[4] In its original implementation, the phrase referred to amplitudes of the Common MidPoint
stack; modern implementations are pre-stack (AVO and AVOAz). These amplitude highs can be caused by an
increase of reflection coefficient by a gas in the pore space. It is used to identify the increase in amplitude
rather than the presence of hydrocarbons, and it is usually greater in unconsolidated clastic rocks. [10] Acoustic
impedance is lower in the sands than in the shales, as the pore space is filled with water. [4] As hydrocarbons
are added to pore spaces, the velocity and density of the sand decreases. Due to this, the impedance contrast
at the top of the sand increases, making the reflection stronger and more negative; thus, it becomes
"brighter."

Figure 6. Expected acoustic impedance trends and responses to

hydrocarbons. Credit: GeoScienceWorld [11]

Dim spots
Dim spots are caused by highly consolidated sands with a much greater acoustic impedance than the
overlying shale.[4] As seen on Figure 7, the top of the sandstone shows a strong peak. Adding hydrocarbons to
the pore space may cause the velocity and density of the sandstone to decrease; however, it won't decrease
enough to reverse the polarity of the reflection coefficient. [4] The hydrocarbon reduces the acoustic
impedance and the reflection coefficient, thus it produces a "dim spot." [10]

Flat spots
Flat spots represent a hydrocarbon contact seismic response where it is apparently flat. Such contact may be
between gas and oil, oil and water, or gas and water. The hydrocarbon reservoir much be thicker than the
vertical resolution in order to represent a flat spot. Flat spots are often difficult to find; the edge or base of
channels, low angle faults, or processing artifacts can often be misconceived as flat spots. Flat spots may also
be caused by low saturated gas in a reservoir.[12]

Figure 7. Different amplitude responses on seismic data.

Phase change
Phase change, also known as polarity reversal, occurs when the overlying reservoir has a lower velocity of the
reservoir rock.[10] This can occur when a partially consolidated sand becomes wet. This causes the acoustic
impedance to become slightly higher than the overlying shale. The top of the sand correlates to a weak
positive reflection coefficient. As hydrocarbons are added to the pore space the velocity and density of the
sandstone decrease; which also results in a decrease of the acoustic impedance to the point where it's
slightly less than the overlying shale. [4] The reflection at the top then changes phase, changing from a peak to
a weak trough, which can be seen in Figure 8. In a phase change there is no outstanding amplitude. [11] As seen
in Figure 7, identifying phase changes can be challenging, as an interpreter might assume that the top of the
sandstone will be represented by a continuous reflection.
 [11]
Figure 8. Phase change example. Credit: GeoScienceWorld

Gas chimneys
Gas chimneys occurs when a defectively sealed hydrocarbon buildup leaks gas from a deeper level into the
subsurface, which is usually along a fault plane. It usually results in a gas-bearing cloud. [13] This gas can cause
the overlying rocks, mainly shale with permeable zones, to have a lower velocity. In seismic data, gas
chimneys are frequently observed as areas of poor quality data or sags. [10] This can cause high difficulties in
structural mapping in depth accurately. These saturations often don't have any economical value; however,
they are helpful to find possible leak traps below.[13]

Shadow effects
Shadow effects is caused by the lowering of the velocity in a hydrocarbon buildup. This causes an increase in
travel-times in the deeper reflections, which results in a reflection sink. They often occur above and below a
bright spot due to the high amplitude processing.[10]

Pitfalls of DHIs
DHIs exploration can be very challenging and can result in failed wells. Some possible reasons for failure may
be:

 Problem in differentiating the wells with gas buildups and wells with low-saturation gas (fizz gas), which
are considered dry holes. These are principally costly due to their locations and lack of infrastructure.
o Dry holes are often interpreted as false positives; which are often found in tight reservoirs and thick
wet sands.
o Low-saturation gas phenomenon is often related to a break in a reservoir seal and is due to residual
gas that assemble a high amplitude effect similar to a commercial saturation. [12]
 Flat reflections may be caused by unusual lithologic variations rather than fluid contacts.
 Rocks with low impedance could be mistaken for hydrocarbons, such as coal beds, low density shale,
ash, mud volcano, etc.
 Polarity of the data could be incorrect, causing a bright amplitude in a high impedance zone. [2]
 Superposition of seismic reflections and tuning effects.
 Signal contamination due to noise.
Chat GPT : Pitfalls : Direct hydrocarbon indication (DHI)
Direct hydrocarbon indication (DHI) is a seismic attribute or anomaly that suggests the presence of
hydrocarbons (oil and gas) in subsurface formations. While DHI can be a valuable tool in hydrocarbon
exploration, there are several pitfalls associated with its interpretation:

False Positives: Not all anomalies indicating hydrocarbons are actually indicative of significant reserves.
Some features that resemble DHI may be caused by other factors such as lithological changes, fluid
movement, or structural complexities. Therefore, relying solely on DHI without corroborating evidence
can lead to false positives, resulting in costly drilling mistakes.

Geological Complexity: Geological settings can vary significantly, leading to complex seismic responses.
Interpreting DHI in areas with complex structures, such as faulted or fractured formations, salt domes,
or unconformities, can be challenging. DHI may be masked or misinterpreted in such settings, leading to
incorrect conclusions about hydrocarbon presence.

Rock Properties: The presence of hydrocarbons alters the rock properties, including seismic velocity,
density, and impedance. However, variations in rock properties due to factors unrelated to
hydrocarbons (e.g., lithology, pore fluids other than hydrocarbons) can also produce similar seismic
responses. Distinguishing between these factors requires detailed analysis and integration of multiple
data sources.

Fluid Types and Saturation: DHI responses can vary depending on the type of hydrocarbon (oil, gas, or
both) and their saturation levels in the reservoir. Different fluids exhibit distinct seismic signatures, and
variations in saturation levels can affect seismic responses. Failure to consider these factors accurately
can lead to misinterpretation of DHI.

Temporal Changes: Seismic data capture a snapshot of subsurface conditions at a particular moment in
time. However, reservoir conditions, including fluid distribution and pressure, can change over time due
to production, natural depletion, or fluid migration. Therefore, DHI observed in seismic data may not
accurately represent current reservoir conditions, leading to erroneous interpretations.

Data Quality and Resolution: The quality and resolution of seismic data play a crucial role in DHI
interpretation. Poor data quality, inadequate resolution, or limitations in imaging techniques can
obscure subtle DHI features or produce artifacts that mimic hydrocarbon indicators. High-quality data
acquisition and processing are essential to minimize these issues.
Confirmation Bias: Human interpretation of seismic data is susceptible to biases, including confirmation
bias, where interpreters may unconsciously favor interpretations that confirm their preconceived
notions or desires. This can lead to overestimation of the significance of DHI anomalies and overlooking
contradictory evidence.

To mitigate these pitfalls, integrated approaches that incorporate various geophysical, geological, and
engineering data, along with rigorous quality control and validation procedures, are essential for
accurate DHI interpretation and reducing exploration risks.